The Impact of Fungi on Food Poisoning - Essay Example

The Impact of Fungi on Food Poisoning Total Number of Words: 3,085 Table of Contents I. TopicOutline …………………………………………………………….. 3 II. Research Proposal ……………………………………………………… 4 III. Introduction ……………………………………………………………….. 5 IV. Literature Review ………………………………………………………… 6 a. General Information with regards to the Growth of Fungi in Foods ………………………………………………….. 6 b. Types of Fungi that Causes Food Poisoning …………...…. 7 b.1 Aflatoxins ………………………………………………… 7 b.2 Ochratoxin A …………………………………………….. 8 b.3 Fumonisins ……………………………………………… 9 b.4 Trichothecenes …………………………………………. 10 b.5 Zearalenone …………………………………………….. 10 c. Negative Impact of Fungi on Food Poisoning ……………… 11 c.1 Corresponding Clinical Signs and Symptoms or Effects of Mycotoxins in the Human Body ……………. 11 c.1.1 Aspergilius flavus and/or Aspergillus parasiticus that produces aflatoxins ………… 11 c.1.2 Aspergillus niger and aspergillus cabonarius that produces ochratoxin A …………………… 12 c.1.3 Fumonisins or Fusarium moniliforme toxins … 13 c.1.4 Trichothecenes produced by fusarium species 13 c.1.5 Zearalenone produced by fusarium species … 14 VI. Recommended Solutions ………………………………………………… 14 IX. Conclusion …………………………………………………………………. 15 Appendix I – Food Poisoning Statistics throughout UK ……………………… 16 References ……………………………………………………………………… 17 - 23 Topic Outline Research Proposal Each type of fungi-produced mycotoxins has its particular impact over the animals and the human body. For this reason, research for this study was conducted in such a way that it identifies and determine not only the main factors that causes the production of fungi causing food poison but also the positive and negative impact of these mycotoxins on living things. Upon discussing each specific mycotoxins known as: (1) aflatoxins; (2) ochratoxin A; (3) fumonisins; (4) trichothecenes; and (5) zearalenone; the researcher has provided some recommended solutions on how we could minimize and prevent the increasing number of food poisoning cases throughout the United Kingdom. Introduction The Health Protection Agency Centre for Infections (HPACI) reported that the highest incidence of food poisoning throughout the United Kingdom was highest back in 1997 with 105,596 cases. (Foodlink, 2008) With the help of Food Standards Agency in terms of ensuring the quality and safety of the available food products in the market (Society for General Microbiology, 2008b) combined with teaching the people with the importance of proper food management through health education, the number of individuals who has suffered from food poisoning was down to 78,734 as of 2005. (See Appendix I – Food Poisoning Statistics throughout UK on page 16) Food poisoning or foodborne illnesses are commonly caused by eating food that has been contaminated by micro-organisms like harmful bacteris such as Campylobacter, Salmonella enteritidis, Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes and Clostridium botulinum; toxins; pathogens like parasites or viruses and/or fungi causing mycotoxins like aflatoxins, ochratoxins and patulin. (Society for General Microbiolgy, 2008a; Weinberg, 2008) In general, diseases that are directly related to the presence of fungus are common in plants and animals. By invading our food supply, humans can be prone to suffer from the harmful metabolites called mycotoxins – also known as “fungus poison” that are produced by fungus within a contaminated food as a strategic way of preventing other organisms from eating the food. For this study, a literature review will be conducted with regards to the impact of fungi on food poisoning will be thoroughly discussed. First, a general information with regards to the growth of fungi in foods will be generally explained. In the process of going through the discussion, the different types and sources of fungi specifically the aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, fumonisins, trichothecenes, and zearalenone that could cause food poisoning as well as its corresponding signs and symptoms will be identified. Prior to conclusion, some recommended solutions will be provided. Literature Review General Information with regards to the Growth of Fungi in Foods The word “myco” literally means “fungus” whereas the word “toxin” means “poison”. (Cheeke & Shull, 1985: pp. 393 – 477) For this reason, being infected with harmful mycotoxins could lead to the death of a person when left untreated. Mycotoxins are considered as a low-molecular weight secondary metabolite that is naturally produced by fungi. (Chu, 1992) According to Pitt (2000), the continuous growth of filamentous fungi in foods could result to the production of harmful toxins called mycotoxins. In general, mycotoxins officially have no official role when it comes to the normal metabolism during the growth stage of fungus. These mycotoxins are neither infectious nor contagious. However, these secondary metabolites can develop on a herd-wide basis. (Pitt, 2000; Wren, 1994: pp. 4 – 10) Fungi-producing mycotoxins are mostly aerobic but can also be pathogenic to plants. Among the environmental factors that could increase the growth of fungus in plants and animals include ambient temperature between 12 to 47oC with moisture level of less than 70% whereas other external facts that inhibits the growth of these organisms includes the ability of insects to destroy the outer protection of the plants which makes it so much easier for fungi-producing mycotoxins to invade. (Prince et al., 1993) Types of Fungi that Causes Food Poisoning Among the common classifications of mycotoxins are: (1) aflatoxins; (2) ochratoxin A; (3) fumonisins; (4) trichothecenes; and (5) zearalenone. The three major fungi that produces these mycotoxins are known as: (1) Aspergillus; (2) Fusarium; and (3) Penicilium. (Pitt, 2000) Aflatoxins Aspergillus species such as A. flavus and/or A. parasiticus produces aflatoxins under the environmental condition of storing crops in a place with substrate moisture content of 14% aside from having a room or weather temperature of between 25 to 40oC. (Agriculture and Consumer Protection, 2008) With regards to the given weather temperature, the study that was conducted by Cole et al. (1982) concluded that aflatoxins flavus invade faster during drought season in corn kernels and peanut pods. Aside from corn and peanuts, aflatoxins could also invade food products that are related to a wide-variety of feeds such as beans, cereal grains, and peas. (Pitt, 2000) Because of the high number of cancer cases it brings to the people Aflatoxin B1 is considered as one of the most common human carcinogen. (International Agency for Research on Cancer, 1993) Basically, the levels of aflatoxins in the human body can be tested in two ways. Sometimes, the local food authorities could test the levels of aflatoxins directly from a bulk of food supply which has been suspected to be infected with fungi. (Pitt & Hocking, 1996: Vol. 37, pp. 5 – 10) In some cases, taking the blood samples of individuals who are showing signs and symptoms of mycotoxicosis can also be equally effective in tracing the species that intoxicate a person. (Miller, 1996; Castegnaro, Plestina, & Dirheimer, 1991: p. 340) Based on a past research study, a low dose of aflatoxins ingestions between 2 to 6 mg/kg a day will not cause serious signs and symptoms of infection. However, aflatoxins ingestions between 10 to 20 mg/kg can become lethal on the part of the adults. (Krishnamachari et al., 1975) This type of organisms could invade the food supply during the time of food production, processing, transporting, and/or storage. In line with this matter, Pitt (2000) explained that some of the aspergillius species are plant pathogens which normally invade the food supply during the drying and storing stage. Ochratoxin A Ochratoxin A is also known as the “metabolite of A. ochraceus.” (Pitt, 2000; van der Merwe et al., 1965) Aspergillus species particularly the A. niger, A. cabonarius, A. ochraceus and Penicillium species like P. verrucosum and P. viridicatum are common producers of ochratoxin A. (Agriculture and Consumer Protection, 2008; Romer Labs, 2008; Leong, Hocking, & Scott, 2007; Ponsone et al., 2007; Varga et al., 1996; Abarca et al., 1994) Similar to some of the aspergillius species, penicillium are also plant pathogens could invade the food supply during the drying and storing stage. (Pitt, 2000) Given the fact that ochratoxin A species could survive under the sun, several studies reveal that there is a much wider spread of ochratoxin A in dried tropical foods such as maize, peanuts, cashews, fruits, and copra as compared to other varieties of food products that are available in non-tropical regions. (Pitt et al., 1998; Pitt et al., 1993) The quantity limit of ochratoxin A in blood as 60 ng/L blood. (Breitholtz-Emanuelsson et al., 1993) Aside from blood test, urine test can also be used in determining whether or not a person is infected with high dose of ochratoxin A. (Petkova-Bocharova et al., 2003) Basically, a very high concentration of ochratoxin A in the human blood can be very toxic and could lead to various diseases. As compared to developing countries, the incidence of ochratoxin A exposure is most common in developed countries like Europe. (Petkova-Bocharova et al., 2003; Miller, 1996) Fumonisins Fumonisins are considered not only as one of the family of foodborne carcinogenic mycotoxins (Marasas, 2001) but also one of the most common agricultural fungal toxins which are easily found in developing countries. (Miller, 1996) Fumonisins are mycotoxins that are produced by Fusarium species such as F. verticilloides and F. proliferatum. (Romer Labs, 2008) In general, fumonisins are also known as Fusarium moniliforme toxins which is a member of sphinganine analog mycotoxins that can be present in foods. (Wang et al., 1996) Similar to aflatoxins and ochratoxin A, fumonisins can also be found in maize plants and stored grain (Nelson, 1992). In fact, maize is considered as one of the most significant sources of fumonisins (Pitt & Hocking, 1997). Aside from causing a serious health detriments to humans when ingested, the species of fusarium is also capable of destroying the pathogens that are present on cereal crops and other common commodities which occur before the harvest season. (Pitt, 2000) Trichothecenes Parallel to fumonisins, trichothecenes are also produced by fungal genera such as Fusarium species such as F. equiseti, F. graminearum, F. sporotrichioides, and F. equiseti; Trichoderma, and Trichthecium. (Romer Labs, 2008; Bennett & Klich, 2003; Pitt & Hocking, 1997) As a typicla breeding ground for microtoxins, the growth of fungi-causing trichothecenes highly depends on the weather condition all year round. (Chu, 1997) Just like other microtoxins that has been discussed in this study, trichthecenes are also present in foods like barley, corn, grains, rye, safflower seeds, wheat, and feeds that are contaminated by the said organism. (Miller et al., 2001: pp. 310 – 319, Bennett & Klich, 2003) Zearalenone In general, zearalenone is known as a Fusarium metabolite which is a non-steroidal estrogen, mycoestrogen, phytoestrogen. (Bennett & Klich, 2003) Basically, zearalenone is another mycotoxin that is also produced by Fusarium species such as F. graminearum, F. culamorum, F. equiseti, and F. crookwellense. (Agriculture and Consumer Protection, 2008; Bennett & Klich, 2003; Romer Labs, 2008) According to Pitt (2000), zearalenone is an oestrogenic toxin which is produced by F. graminearum. Zearalenone could also invade cereal and grain crops around the world. (Hagler et al., 2001) Based on several studies, the normally accepted dosage of zearalenone should be roughly 0.05 µg/kg of human body weight daily. (Bennett & Klich, 2003; Kuiper-Goodman, Scott, & Watanabe, 1987) Values more than 0.05 µg/kg of human body weight per day can cause serious damages to the reproductive systems of human beings. Negative Impact of Fungi on Food Poisoning Based on the immune system of a person, the degree of mycotoxins toxicity in a human body varies from one to another. (Bennett & Klich, 2003) For this reason, toxicity level of mycotoxins is classified as: (1) acute; (2) chronic; (3) mutagenic; and (4) teratogenic. (Pitt, 2000) Basically, acute mycotoxin poisoning includes the adverse health effects on a person’s liver and/or kidney which could lead to the patient’s death. On the other hand, a chronic mycotoxin poisoning is referred to the case of a long-ternm effects of being infected with a low level of mycotoxin ingestion which could cause a person to suffer from liver cancer or tumour induction. (Pitt, 2000; Breitholtz-Emanuelsson et al., 1993; Lubulwa & Davis, 1994; Castegnaro et al., 1991; Groopman, Cain, & Kensler, 1988; Peers et al., 1987; Stoloff, 1977: pp. 7 – 28) Corresponding Clinical Signs and Symptoms or Effects of Mycotoxins in the Human Body Aspergilius flavus and/or Aspergillus parasiticus that produces aflatoxins In general, the effects of mycotoxins in the human body is called mycotoxicoses. Aspergilius flavus and/or Aspergillus parasiticus produces aflatoxins which could lead to a serious case of acute liver cirrhosis, liver damage, and cancer. (Lubulwa & Davis, 1994; Groopman, Cain, & Kensler, 1988; Peers et al., 1987; Stoloff, 1977: pp. 7 – 28) Among pregnant women, these organisms could cause the mother to experience a significant decrease in their milk production as well as the weakening of their immune system. (Zarba et al., 1992; Hendrickse, 1991) Since majority of lactating mothers would breast feed their babies, there is a higher possibility that these mycotoxins would eventually be ingested by their babies. (Zarba et al., 1992; Allameh, Saxena, & Raj, 1989) In the case of children, the adverse health effects of aflatoxins includes: anemia, gastrointestinal disturbances, and lack of appetite aside from the fact that this type of body infection could cause a child to suffer from retarded growth and development. (Shah, Kannikeswaran, & Kamat, 2007; Coulombe, 1993) For this reasons, children who has ingested a large amount of aflatoxins are expected to show signs of reduced food intake, weight loss, and weakening. In worst case scenario, people could die from becoming infected with aflatoxins without being diagnosed that a person has been infected with the disease due to the fact that diagnosis of mycotoxicosis can be very difficult especially in regions wherein not much study were conducted with regards to this matter. (Wyllie & Morehouse, 1977: pp. 1 – 12) Therefore, it is unlikely for these areas to have a local diagnostic laboratory which is necessary when it comes to diagnosing the presence of mycotoxicosis. Aspergillus niger and aspergillus cabonarius that produces ochratoxin A Although there is not much study made with regards to the adverse health effects of ochratoxin A in human, the study of Pitt (2000) suggests that ochratoxin A is immunosuppressive, embryonic, and carcinogenic effects. Based on the study that was conducted by Krogh (1974), the presence of ochratoxin A was found to have a significant role in the worsening of kidney diseases or nephritis in pigs. On the other hand, several studies that analysed a urine test reveal that high levels of ochratoxin A were found among individuals with urinary tract tumours. (Breitholtz-Emanuelsson et al., 1993; Castegnaro et al., 1991) Fumonisins or Fusarium moniliforme toxins Based on the study that was conducted by Marasas et al. (1988), too much intake of fumonisins could lead to esophageal cancer among human beings. This is primarily due to the fact that ingestion of fumonisins substances could disrupt the normal functioning of the sphinogolipid metabolism. (Wang et al., 1996) Aside from causing serious health problems on human beings, fumonisins when ingested by animals could toxicate their neurons causing these animals to loss their mucsle controls when walking. (Pitt, 2000) This can also cause animals to suffer not only from neuro diseases but also other diseases related to renal, neoplasms, heptatoxicosis, and cell death. (Wang et al., 1996) In worst case scenario, ingestion of too much corn that has been contaminated with fumonisins had caused a lot of animals like horeses and pigs to die. (Ross et al., 1991; Wilson et al., 1990) Trichothecenes produced by fusarium species When ingested in large amount, trichothecenes can be fatal and toxic to humans. Among the signs and symptoms that are present during infection, infected individuals could experience sickness related to alimentary hemorrhage, dermatitis or damages in the skin tissues, diarrhea, loss of appetite, nausea, necrosis, nose bleeding, vomiting, weight loss. (Sharma, 2006; Bennett & Klich, 2003) Zearalenone produced by fusarium species Zearalenone often causes domestic animals like pigs some genital problems including hyperaemia as well as hyperestrogenic syndromes or the swelling of the vulva in pigs that are in prepuberty stage. (Bennett & Klich, 2003; Pitt, 2000) For this reason, reproductive system of the animals are often affected which could result to unpreventable cases of abortion among the female animals like cattle and sheeps whereas male animals could experience sexual problems related to a lesser libido among others. (Bennett & Klich, 2003; El-Nezami et al., 2002; Heffron, 1999) Because of the ability of zearalenone to increase estrogenic activity in women, this organisms can be used in treating the symptoms that occurs among the postmenopausal women. (Bennett & Klich, 2003; Utian, 1973) On the other hand, the same organism is used as an ingredient in oral contraceptives. (Hidy et al., 1977) Recommended Solutions There are ways wherein harmful health effects of mycotoxins can be prevented. There is a need to segregate infected food products from those that are not contaminated. This can be done by testing the blood and serum samples of animal food products that are suspected to be contaminated with any forms of mycotoxins. (Miller, 1996; Castegnaro, Plestina, & Dirheimer, 1991: p. 340; Kuiper-Goodman & Scott, 1989) Aside from segregating infected animal food products from non-infected ones, there is also a strong need to subject each individual to ochratoxin, aflatoxin, fumonisins, trichothecenes, and zearalenon in order to provide them with immediate treatment in case they have ingested a large amount of mycotoxins in their body. (Bennett & Klich, 2003) Prevention is always better than cure. For this reason, it is advisable to teach the local people on how they should prepare and store these food items as soon as they have brought these products at home. For example: People should be adviced not to leave their food under hot and humid area since this could encourage fungi to invade the food and multiply. On the other hand, Food Standards Agency should closely monitor how food manufacturers produce, process, transport, and store their finish food products in order to reduce the cases of wasting food items from spoilage. Given that the degree of toxicity varies depending on the immune system of the human body, there is advisable for us to protect ourselves with proper nutrition and exercise. In line with this matter, several studies show that in-take of vitamin A, C, and E protects the liver and kidney from ochratoxin and zearalenon. (Ibeh & Saxena, 1998; Grosse et al., 1997; Sinha & Dharmshila, 1994) Conclusion Not all fungi-produced mycotoxins could result to a negative impact on the human body. Some mycotoxins like Zearalenone can be used in curing illnesses related to menopausal and/or used as oral contraceptives. Given the fact that fungi produced mycotoxins like aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, fumonisins, trichothecenes, and zearalenone can lead to adverse health effects when ingested in large amount could lead to serious health problems and death, there is a strong need for us to keep our food supply free from these organisms. Appendix I – Food Poisoning Statistics throughout UK Source: Health Protection Agency Centre for Infection, 2008 References: Abarca, M.L., et al. "Ochratoxin A production by strains of Aspergillus niger." Applied and Environmental Microbiology (1994): 60(7):2650 - 2652. "Agriculture and Consumer Protection." 2008. FAO Corporate Document Repository: Mycotoxins in Grain... 16 Augsut 2008 . Allameh, Abdelamir, Manju Saxena and H.G. Raj. "Interaction of aflatoxin B1 metabolites with cellular macromolecules in neonatal rats receiving carcinogen through mothers milk." Carcinogenesis (1989): 10(11):2131 - 2134. Bennett, J.W. and M. Klich. "Mycotoxins." 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"Aflatoxrn M1 in human breast milk from The Gambia, West Africa, quantified by combined monoclonal antibody immunoaffinity chromatography and HPLC." Carcinogenesis (1992): 13(5):891 - 894. Read More