Nature versus Nurture: Compare and Contrast - Essay Example

Developmental Psychology NATURE VERSUS NURTURE: COMPARE AND CONTRAST Introduction Nature and nurture, that is nativism and empirism are two positions that have resulted in very different theories for understanding growth during the early stages of development of an individual. In the field of developmental psychology, there is an increasing trend towards combining the two diverse stands towards a more unified view on humans who are always influenced both by hereditary factors and their cultural history (Valsiner & Connolly, 2003: 200). Developmental psychologists such as Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson and Jean Piaget formulated theories of child development based on specific stages of the human life span. Contrastingly, developmental psychologists who emphasized learning theories, such as Lev Vygotsky, John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner and Albert Bandura focus on the role of environment more than on the part played by biology. The diverse theories are based on different assumptions, but are similar in some respects (Sigelman & Rider, 2006: 49). The two developmental approaches which are chosen for comparison in this paper are those of Erikson (1902-1994) and Piaget (1896-1987). The similarities and differences between their theories will be examined, including the extent to which nature versus nurture play a part. Discussion On the nature side of the nature-nurture controversy, the nativist belief is that human development is determined by innate factors such as genetic endowment and brain maturation. On the nurture side, also known as empirism, development is considered as the result of experience and learning. Although there are some biologically based limits on behaviour and cognition, the “brains are open, dynamic information processors that are receptive to sociocultural influences” (Kitayama & Cohen, 2007: 528). According to Jean Piaget’s theory, the development of intelligence in children progresses through a series of four stages based on age and concurrent biological changes and maturation. This leads to the child demonstrating a higher level of cognitive functioning at each successive stage, as compared to the previous stage (Videbeck, 2007: 61). The stages of development are not universal, since cultural differences exist. However, the mechanisms that underlie cognitive development are considered to be universal (Pressley & McCormick, 2007: 89). Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development are as follows: 1. The sensorimotor stage: This extends from birth to two years. The child develops a sense of self, differentiated from the environment, and develops the concept of object permanence. That is, a perception of the existence of tangible objects even when they are out of sight, that they do not cease to exist when not in view. The child begins to form mental images. 2. The preoperational stage: From two to six years, the child develops the ability to express self with language, understands the meaning of symbolic gestures, and begins to classify objects. 3. The concrete operations stage: Between six to twelve years the child begins to apply logic to thinking, understands spatiality and reversibility, is increasingly social and able to apply rules; however, thinking is still concrete. 4. The formal operations stage: From twelve to fifteen years and beyond, the child learns to think and reason in abstract terms. Further, there is development of logical thinking and reasoning, and the achievement of cognitive maturity in the child (Videbeck, 2007: 61). On the other hand, the different aspects of child development identified by Erik Erikson (1963: 260) are: biological, social and individual. Erikson’s most important contribution to psychology is his demarcation of the eight psychosocial stages represented by the eight ages in the life span of an individual. An individual’s identity is related to each stage of the lifecycle. During adolescence a conflict between identity and role confusion can arise. Ego development occurs through all the stages of the life span, and is part of a child’s evolution into adolescence. Based on the epigenetic principle, Erikson believed that psychosocial growth occurs in sequential phases, and each stage was dependent on completion of the previous stage and life task. each of the eight stages of development that people pass through, involves a core conflict, with either a positive or a negative resolution of the conflict at each stage. Subsequent development depended in part on conflict resolution in the previous stage. It is essential to note that though each stage of the life cycle focuses on a particular conflict situation, all the eight conflicts can occur in different forms across the lifespan. For example, an early conflict such as trust versus mistrust which is resolved poorly in infancy because of the lack of a loving mother-infant relationship, may occur again. Increased trust in later life may replace the lack of trust experienced earlier in life. Erikson believed that adaptations commonly took place across the lifespan (Pressley & McCormick, 2007: 145). Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development are as follows, with each stage representing a specific task or conflict that is required to be resolved. Trust versus Mistrust (First year of life): Infant’s needs must be met by responsive, sensitive caretakers, for the development of trust and a sense of optimism (Fogiel, 2000: 29). Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt (1-3 years): If children have difficulty establishing self control in areas such as feeding, dressing and toilet training, the results may be feelings of shame and doubt about one’s ability for autonomy (Fogiel, 2000: 29). Initiative versus Guilt (4-5 years): Through play children learn to plan and implement tasks. Children who are criticized or discouraged from taking the initiative learn to feel guilty. Industry versus Inferiority (6-12 years): During the elementary school years children are expected to develop fundamental literacy and numeracy skills. Success results in a feeling of industry, and failure can lead to a sense of inferiority (Fogiel, 2000: 30). Identity versus Role Confusion (Adolescence): After experimenting and struggling with possible roles and identities, an integrated image of oneself as a unique person is conceptualized, thereby establishing a sense of identity. Failure to achieve an identity results in role confusion Intimacy versus Isolation (Young adulthood): After establishing an identity, failure to establish intimate relationships with others leads to a deep sense of isolation (Fogiel, 2000: 30). Generativity versus Stagnation (Middle adulthood): Adulthood is a period of contributing to society and to the development of the next generation; otherwise a sense of stagnation results. Integrity versus Despair (Late adulthood): The person who resolves all of life’s crises in a positive manner is likely to reflect on their past and feel a sense of integrity. If otherwise, a sense of despair over the value of one’s life, will result (Fogiel, 2000: 30). The Similarities and Differences Between Erikson’s Theory and Piaget’s Theory The developmental theory of cognition proposed by Piaget in 1950, involved an integrated concept of nature and nurture, but focused mainly on the emergence of formal logical structures; and not on the adolescent period as such. Piaget’s theory used the onset of formal operations as an explanation of everything adolescent, and did not relate to biological, emotional, personality, social and societal concerns during the period of adolescence (Lerner & Steinberg, 2004: 4). On the other hand, Erikson’s approach was based more on nurture than nature. An individual’s environment played an important role through all the stages of his development. Erikson referred to a sense of inner continuity and sameness in relation to the concept of identity, whereas Piaget asserted that “object permanence” was essential for the development of identity (Honess & Yardley, 1987: 194). According to Erikson, an individual’s identity development occurred at each stage of the life span, and was concurrent with ego development which occurred throughout the life span. This formed a crucial part of the child’s evolution into adolescence. Further, Erikson focused on identity development during adolescence as the crisis between identity and role confusion (Fogiel, 2000: 30). On the other hand, Piaget did not focus on the study of identity and self, but considered it as developing concurrently with an individual’s cognitive evolution. However, an adolescent’s changing concept towards self and his environment during Piaget’s fourth cognitive stage of formal operations is similar to Erikson’s identity crisis during adolescence. During Piaget’s formal operational thought, the adolescent developed the capacity for abstract problem formulation, hypothesis development and solution testing. Similarly, during Erikson’s identity versus role confusion, the adolescent tried to find his place in the world through self-certainty versus apathy, role experimentation versus negative identity, and anticipation of achievement versus work paralysis (Hutchison, 2003: 312). Further, both Piaget and Erikson believed that the adolescent had an enquiring mind, searching for “some inspiring unification of tradition or anticipated techniques, ideas and ideals” (Gibbons & Stiles, 2004: 2). A parallel is drawn in the similarity between the concept of identity crisis advanced by Erikson, and cognitive disequilibrium proposed by Piaget. According to Piaget, knowledge develops through the process of assimilation and accommodation. “When an existing knowledge system can no longer assimilate the new experiences encountered, disequilibrium occurs and sustains until a new balance is achieved through advanced understanding” (Columbus, 2005: 57). Erikson’s theory on psychosocial development through the life span, focuses on social interactions of the child with his environment which help in his conceptualization of his own identity and development of ego at each of the eight stages. According to Erikson, identity crisis and core pathologies in individuals result from restriction of social behavior in general and new behavior in particular (Newman & Newman, 2005: 58). Further, Erikson defined the life stage of adolescence as a crisis of identity versus identity diffusion or role confusion (Fogiel, 2000: 30). During the identity crisis, the adolescent’s struggle is to make sense of what has occurred before in relation to what he perceives the world to be, in an effort to find a consistent sameness in himself and a continued sharing of some kind of common characteristics with others. Thus Erikson’s theory of identity crisis is similar to Piaget’s theory of disequilibrium resulting from the absence of an advanced understanding required to assimilate new experiences encountered. Conclusion This paper has highlighted the two developmental psychology theories of child development formulated by Piaget and Erikson. The similarities and differences between their theories were examined, including the extent to which nature versus nurture played a part. The main similarity has been found in the psychologists’ approach to identity development during adolescence, where Erikson’s identity crisis is parallel to Piaget’s stage of formal operations, and the occurrence of disequilibrium if the child is not suffiently prepared from his or her experience in the previous stage, to meet the challenges of the next stage. The important differences are that Piaget’s theory is based on an integration of nature and nurture, whereas Erikson’s theory is mainly based on nurture. Erikson’s theory of child development is found to encompass more completely the various aspects of an individual’s personality such as the important impact of social interactions, whereas Piaget’s theory is found to be more abstract, and excludes certain important elements of human living in its formulation of child development. References Columbus, A. 2005. Advances in psychology research. New York: Nova Publishers. Erikson, E.H. 1963. Childhood and society. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. Fogiel, M. 2000. Psychology II: Super review. The United States of America: Research and Education Association. Gibbons, J.L. & Stiles, D.A. 2004. The thoughts of youth: an international perspective on adolescents’ ideal persons. The United States of America: IAP Publishers. Honess, T. & Yardley, K. 1987. Self and identity: perspectives across the lifespan. London: Routledge. Hutchison, E. 2003. Dimensions of human behavior: the changing life course. California: Sage. 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