Time Management, Job Satisfaction and Psychological Well-Being - Article Example

Running Head: THE MEDIATING EFFECTS “The Mediating Effects of Time Structure on the Relationships between Time Management Behavior, Job Satisfactionand Psychological Wellbeing” Edited By Chandrakant Mallya The Mediating Effects of Time Structure on the Relationships between Time Management Behavior, Job Satisfaction and Psychological Wellbeing. Introduction: What at are The Mediating Effects of Time Structure on the Relationships between Time Management Behavior, Job Satisfaction and Psychological Wellbeing? An individual has limited time. Ignore time structure and invite worry, boredom, comprehensibility, manageability, meaninglessness of life, strain and somatic complaints. Proper use of time means job satisfaction and better performance of duty. Efficiency, commitment to work and motivation are all the byproducts of an efficient time structure. Background information: Time structure plays a vital role in our life. Two theories explain the use of time. Macan’s (1994) model conceptualizes how individuals manage time to achieve performance and maintain well being. Bond and Feather (1988) termed “time structure” to “the degree to which individuals perceive their use of time as structured and purposive” (p. 321). How employment provides individuals with a sense of structure and purpose, and how the absence of such a structure has negative influences. In a recent study, Kelly (2003) examined the relationship between worry and time usage amongst university students. Kelly found that the negative impact of Time Structure is worry. Kelly’s finding is inconsistent with many previous studies, which suggest that Time Management Behaviors (TMB) positively predict psychological consequences, such as personal wellbeing, work and life satisfaction. Time Management Behavior: Macan and her colleagues developed the Time Management Behavior scale (Macan, 1994; Macan et al., 1990) by the twin surveys of college students and organization employees. Macan classified time management behavior into three categories Setting goals and priorities; mechanics of time management behaviors, and preference for organization. Setting goals and priorities includes “items that tap the setting of goals the person wants or needs to accomplish and prioritizing of the various tasks to achieve these goals” (Macan et al., 1990, p. 761). Mechanics of time management refers to the “behaviors typically associated with managing time, such as making lists and planning” (Macan et al., 1990, p. 761). Preference for organization refers to a reverse-scored factor that includes items measuring “a general preference for disorganization in one’s workspace and approach to projects” (Macan et al., 1990, p. 761). Based on this categorization of time management behaviors, Macan (1994) proposed the process model, which hypothesized that time management behaviors predict an individual’s perceived control of time, which in turn predicts job induced and somatic tensions, job performance, and satisfaction. Macan et al. (1990) found that college students who scored higher on TMB reported significantly higher performance in work and life satisfaction, as well as less role ambiguity, role overload, and job-induced and somatic tensions. Perceived control of time was the fourth factor in TMB. Macan (1994) argued that the relationship between time management and individual level outcomes is mediated by the individual’s perceived control over time. This mediating effect was found for self-reported job performance, work and life satisfaction, role ambiguity, role overload, and job-induced and somatic tensions (Macan, 1994; Macan et al., 1990). The results of Macan’s studies highlighted the significance of “feeling in control”. Barling et al. (1996) also argued, “Engaging in time management behaviors offers one a means of effectively controlling the environment and is likely to have its greatest effect for individuals with a strong desire to exert such control” (p. 882) Time Structure: Feather and Bond (1983) found that unemployed participants in their study reported less structure and purpose in their use of time compared to employed participants. This pattern of results prompted the development of the Time Structure Questionnaire (TSQ) (Bond & Feather, 1988), an instrument that measured time structure. Results of Bond and Feather’s (1988) study showed that the TSQ “meets the usual psychometric criteria for further use as a research instrument” (i.e., high internal and test-retest reliability and high positive item-total correlations) (p. 326). The factor analysis of the TSQ demonstrated that it measured multiple dimensions, including sense of purpose, structured routine, present orientation, effective organization, and persistence. Bond and Feather (1988) found that TSQ total scores were positively correlated with a sense of purpose, self-esteem, reported health, present standing and optimism about the future, Type (Macan, 1994; Macan et al., 1990). An analogy can be drawn from the stress literature, it is individuals’ perception and cognition, rather than the stressor itself determines the actual experiences (e.g. Ansel, Robertson, & Caputi, 1997; Folkman, Lazarus, Dunkel-Schetter, DeLongis, & Gruen, 1986; Lazarus, 1993; MacNair & Elliot, 1992). Folkman et al (1986) explores coping styles in the experience of stressful encounters of married couples. Their study found that the ability to cope with stress was strongly related to their cognitive appraisal, which explains their evaluation of what was at stake and their coping strategy. In another study, Ansel and colleagues (1997) found that two appraisal dimensions threat and challenge, predict stressfulness significantly. Specifically, individuals who used challenge appraisal (e.g. seeking assistance, planning, taking direct actions) were less likely to experience stress. Same was the case with individuals who were utilizing their threat appraisal (e.g. anticipating future harm). Job satisfaction: Job satisfaction is defined as “a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job experience” (Locke, 1976, p. 1300). Hall and Hursch (1982) examined the effects of time management training on work effectiveness and job satisfaction in university staff members. Their study found that staff members increased their level of engagement in high-priority tasks, and reported higher level of self evaluated effectiveness and job satisfaction. Macan (1994) surveyed a public social service and a department of correction systems. Her work indicated that individuals who engaged in time management behaviors were more likely to be satisfied with their work and suffer less from somatic tension. Griffiths (2003) examined the importance of time managing in a group of autonomous and unsupervised teleworkers. Griffiths incorporated Cognitive Strategies, Self-Reward and Self-Punishment to the process model of time management. It was found that the total time management scale was significantly related to job productivity and job satisfaction Psychological Wellbeing: Psychological wellbeing refers to the health related issues such as stress, anxiety, morale, and depression, which have negative effect on job performance and satisfaction (Aldisert, 2002). Research in time management has revealed that the manner in which an individual organizes their time also affects their psychological wellbeing (Kilpatrick & Trew, 1985; van Eerde, 2003). Van Eerde (2003) examined the influence of time management training on self-reported procrastination on a group of 37 employees using an experimental design. Her study found that participants who received time management training reported a dramatic decrease in worry and avoidance behaviors and additionally, an increase in their abilities to manage their time effectively. In examining the effects of time management and structure behaviors on psychological wellbeing, many researchers have sought answers from the unemployment literature (Kilpatrick & Trew, 1985; McKee-Ryan, Song, Wanberg, & Kinicki, 2005; Winefield & Tiggerman, 1989; Winefield, Tiggerman, Winefield, & Goldney, 1991). The underlying assumption is that employment can be seen as a provider for time management and thus gives structure to individuals (Jahoda, 1981). In other words, the lack of opportunities to engage in time management behaviors when individuals are unemployed would have detrimental effects on individuals’ wellbeing. Kilpatrick and Trew (1985) employed a triangulation of methods (time diaries, questionnaires, and Goldberg’s 12 items) to measure unemployed Irish male participants’ time related behaviors and psychological wellbeing. They found a significant association between their decline in wellbeing, a decrease in activity and withdrawal into the home. Winefield and Tiggerman (1989) used an Australian sample of school-leavers to examine the effects of unemployment on affective wellbeing in a longitudinal study. Initially measured for baseline comparisons, the sample was divided into three categories: full-time students, employed, and unemployed. The groups were measured at every third year on their levels of self-esteem, depression, and mood. Consequently, in the full-time and employed group significantly greater levels of psychological wellbeing were found compared to the unemployed group Feather and Bond (1994) suggest that the negative impact of unemployment on individuals’ wellbeing can be attributed to the lack of structure. They observed that if unemployed individuals are able to organize their time, keep routines, perceive their time to be purposeful, focus themselves on the present, and persevere through difficulties, they are less likely to be detrimentally affected in their wellbeing. Van Eerde (2003) demonstrated that if individuals are able to set goals and priorities, manage their times, prefer to work in an organized surrounding, and have relative perceptions of control of their time, they are less likely to be affected by decreases in psychological wellbeing. Evaluation of Time Structure and recommendations: The sum and substance of all the above investigations and evaluations takes us to the threshold of the old, wise saying, “Time and tide wait for none.” One needs to budget time, that too well in time. Methodical use of time is the hallmark of an organized personality, whatever be the position and status. Ignore the time aspect; it will create denting in the personality and invite indiscipline in every aspect of life. One will remain imbalanced and lose control of the situation. ----------------- (It was a well-written article, but had many repetitions. Also not in the proper research format .Necessary additions/changes are done, wherever considered necessary. I have tried my best. Thank you.) Read More