Children and Families Module - Essay Example

Chapter Introduction and Overview Introduction Researchers have identified youth homelessness as one of the more troubling of the problems confronting societies today. Not only does youth homelessness represent lost potential but it is a contributory crime factor (Choca and Minoff, 2004). Accordingly, it represents both a direct and indirect threat to societal and communal well-being. The dimensions of the problem, as presented, cannot be underestimated and, indeed, are only affirmed by statistics which indicate that homelessness figures across England border on the quarter of a million figure (Strelitz, 2002). It is, thus, that the dissertation shall explore the problem of homelessness in Great Britain, although with particular focus on youth homelessness in the Luton area. 2 Motive and Rationale of the Study The study’s immediate motive and rationale emanate from the fact that the researcher was once, herself, homeless as a consequence of domestic violence. This first-hand experience has given the researcher a valuable insight into the implications of homelessness, as in the risk factors which the homeless are exposed to and the reasons why this problem is not an individual but a societal one. Added to the above mentioned, the rationale for the study further emanates from the incontrovertible importance of the problem itself and the imperatives of identifying the causes of homelessness and designing a preventative strategy. Jus as a means of emphasising the importance of the identified problem, hence, the motives of the study, it is well worth mentioning that the United Kingdom has the highest homelessness rate in the European Union and, one of the highest in the West. One out of every 250 people is homeless. Of this figure, it is estimated that, at least, a quarter of a million youth are living on the streets (Hall, 2003). London is the most affected area with homelessness rates twice the average for all other areas across the United Kingdom. In Luton, the focus of the study, statistics released by the Luton Borough Council indicate that there are at least 1,150 homeless households in the area, with studies indicating an undeniable potential for growth (`Homeless strategy,’ 2003). In other words, the problem is a serious and important one, well-worth investigating. 3 Key Terms The key terms used in this dissertation are homelessness and care. Accordingly, the manner of their usage shall be defined here in order to offset any potential misinterpretations. 3.1 Homelessness Homelessness is defined as not having a permanent place to live. This includes those who are temporarily staying in shelters, with fiends, in cars, or on the streets (Mech, 1994). 3.2 Care Leavers Care Leavers refers to individuals who, upon turning 18, have to leave the system because they are now legal adults (Ferrell, 2004). 4 Research Approach This section shall outline of all the research’s scope, its aims and objectives, its proposed hypothesis and research questions. 4.1 Scope of the Study As may have been deduced from the foregoing, the problem of homelessness is not simply an important and serious one but it is expansive in scope. Accordingly, the researcher had to limit and define the scope of the study. To this extent, the dissertation will centre on the question of whether homelessness is a young person’s problem, with `young person’ defined as the under twenty-five age group. While the research shall primarily focus on the variables influencing homelessness in the Luton Borough, the situation across the United Kingdom shall be qualitatively and quantitatively researched, discussed and analysed. The purpose of, and strategy for, doing so are outlined below. 4.2 Aims and Objectives The importance of the study ultimately rests upon its aims and objective and, the degree to what the researcher has satisfied them. 4.2.1 Aims Determining whether homelessness in the United Kingdom, with specific focus on Luton, is predominantly a young person’s problem; Researching the causes of homelessness in the under 25 year old age group Establishing a hierarchy of causes, ordered according to the value of their contribution to the problem, as based upon theoretical propositions and empirical research; Researching potential solutions and the efficacy of their implementation. 4.2.2 Objectives Uncovering homelessness statistics and establishing the percentage of youth homelessness; Establishing the percentage of homeless youth who are care leavers, products of “problem families” (Welshman, 1996: p. 447), members of marginalised minority groups and victims of unemployment/economic circumstances. Settling the question regarding whether on not homelessness is a predominantly youth-related problem; Drawing conclusions on the leading causes of youth homelessness; Forwarding a viable and effective solution to the problem, highlighting the role of social workers therein. 4.3 Research Question The researcher explored possible factors that contribute to homelessness among care-leavers as perceived by the youth themselves. Specifically, the preparation that foster youth receive prior to leaving care was carefully explored as well as their support systems. By studying homeless youth, it is hoped their perceptions on why they are or have been homeless can shed light on this problem. Specifically, this study addresses the following questions: Is homelessness a predominantly youth problem, primarily affecting care leavers? What are the primary causes of youth homelessness? Does current legislature, such as the Child Act 1989, effectively address the problem of youth homelessness? 4.4 Hypothesis The dissertation hypothesises that homelessness among care-leavers (youth) is a result of the minimal preparations they have received prior to leaving care, concomitant with the lack of social and emotional support available to this group. 4.5 Methodology Within the context of the current research, and following an exploration of various research methodologies and approaches, the researcher has determined the utilisation of all of the exploratory, descriptive and explanatory approaches. In addition, the research shall combine between the positivist and the phenomenological approaches and, between the quantitative and qualitative, within a deductive framework. In specific reference to the research strategy, data shall be collected both through a desk-based, library-research approach and a survey method. Sources for the former shall primarily be books, scholarly journals and government papers on homelessness among youth in the United Kingdom. As regards the latter, semi-structured interviews shall be carried out with eight homeless youth in the Luton Borough area. As a means of establishing the reliability of the research findings, which Sekeran (2003) defines as integral to any research activity, the researcher shall utilise construct validity tools. As Saunders et al. (2000) explains, construct validity entails the establishment of accurate operational measurements for the research’s core concept. This is done by establishing a chain of evidence throughout the data collection process; by verifying key information through the use of multiple sources of information; and by presented informants with a draft of the study for review. As may have been deduced from the above, the research shall adopt a mixed methodological approach. The selection of the aforementioned and above explained methodology was imposed upon the research by the nature of the phenomenon under investigation, the multi-layered nature of the research problem and the imperatives of satisfying the study’s diverse, but interrelated, objectives. 5.0 Organisation of the Study The dissertation shall be divided five chapters. The first chapter shall define the research problem, investigate its background, outline the scope of the study while elucidating upon its limitations. The second chapter, the literature review, shall overview a select, but representative number of published studies and researches on the problems associated with youth homelessness in Great Britain and the factors led to homelessness among care leavers. The third chapter, or `Methodology,’ shall articulate the dissertation strategy for responding to the research questions and hypothesis, shall outline its theoretical approach and data collection methodology and explain the ethics governing secondary data collection, analysis and usage. The fourth chapter, or `Analysis,’ shall expound upon the findings arrived at through both the secondary and primary data and present a set of recommendations. The fifth chapter shall conclude the study. Chapter 2 – Review of the Literature 2.0 Introduction Children in care are required to leave the system upon turning 18, at which time they are legally defined as adults and assumed to be able to care for themselves. Ironically, society expects that these youth, the most vulnerable of youth, who have suffered abuse or neglect and have never formed permanent mature relationships with adults, to be self sufficient. While other children have parents that they can live with and are willing to pay for their college tuition, youth in care have no one. Renting an apartment with no parent to co-sign a lease, finding money for a security deposit, and getting to work or school without money for transportation, and being able to feed themselves in the absence of a job, are several of the obstacles care leavers confront. As a result, many care leavers confront negative outcomes, primarily homelessness (Barth, 1996). The majority of the youth leaving care lack the support and relationships with other adults which would sustain them. Their socio-familial circumstances have mitigated against their formation of stable friendships, school and community ties (Ferrell, 2004). As Ferrell (2004) contends, in more cases than not, this group of youth develop a sense of abandonment and loss of control. As a result, many of these youth are more likely to have physical and mental health needs, thus making it more challenging for them to live on their own. Choca and Minoff (2004) suggested that relationships, education, and employment are necessary for care leavers to succeed. Without these three support factors, youth are more likely to experience housing problems and have fewer resources to address them. Studies show that the educational achievement level of care leavers tends to be extremely low; further illustrating that education is disrupted and youth have difficulty in school performance as a result (McMillen, 1997). In comparison with the general youth population, the adults in their lives were less likely to monitor homework, and they spent limited time on doing their homework (Blome, 1997). The implication here is that care leavers are simply without the support systems requisite for independency. The literature reviewed in this chapter shall explore many of the issues raised in the preceding paragraphs and attempt to uncover the causes of homelessness among youth. 2.1 The Demographics of Homelessness Numerous studies located by the researcher explored the demographics of homelessness, with the assumption being that within the demographic facts and figures such patterns as would shed invaluable light on the root causes of homelessness will be uncovered. In his study on the demographics of homelessness, Barn (2001) initially proceeded from the premise that minority groups were inordinately or disproportionately represented in Britain’s homeless population. Focusing on the 13 to 16 age group, Barn’s study indicated that the homeless among this age demographic were not primarily black youth but the poor, irrespective of ethnic identity. Indeed, as Barn (2001) concluded, homelessness was not an ethnic minority problem but a predominantly economic one. Wright’s (2002) findings are consistent with Barn’s (2002) conclusions. Examining the problem of chronic, as opposed to periodic/episodic homelessness, among British youth, his study indicates that those who suffer from chronic homelessness are, almost without exception poor and, added to that, substance abusers or sufferers from one form, or another, of mental illness. Commander (2002) and Mendes and Moslehuddin (2006) concur with the above stated findings in that they confirm that the demographics suggest that youth homelessness cuts across ethnic groupings but not economic ones. Nevertheless, they contend that the demographics reveal a more important commonality between the homeless youth. Specifically stated, the greater majority of the homeless across the United Kingdom are care leavers. Indeed, both studies independently maintain that incidents of hopelessness amongst domiciled youth are rare. The studies reviewed in the above do, indeed, expose a demographic pattern amongst the homeless. The greater majority is from low income families/poor, has dysfunctional and abusive familial relations and, more importantly, is comprised of care leavers. The reason why this last is stressed is that it strongly suggests that the institutionalised care system is not equipping the youth within to function independently and, indeed, to survive. 2.2 Stigma towards Homelessness Britons, as do most people, hold distinct beliefs about why individuals become homeless (Lee, Jones, & Lewis, 1990). Lee et al. (1990) found that the public believes people become homeless because of laziness, immorality, heavy drinking, drug use and that, indeed, they choose that lifestyle. The reality, however, is that homelessness is due to forces people cannot control, such as, housing shortages or changes in economy, and mental illness. The correlation between homelessness and housing shortages and cost was established by several researchers, as Strelitz (20020 argues. This is indicated in the figure below. The majority of the public, however, do not see this and fail to understand tha homelessness is not a choice. When people see homeless individuals wondering near public areas, they automatically assume the homeless are hooligans who will cause trouble (Harter, Berquist, Titsworth, Novak, & Brokaw, 2005). Harter et al. (2005) found that homeless youth inspire negative reactions, encompassing all of fear, mistrust and disgust, when the domiciled encounter them on the street. The implication here is that rather than reach out towards the homeless as society’s most disadvantage group, society stigmatises them and, indeed, views them through negative stereotypes which preclude the undertaking of communal corrective strategies as would effectively address, possibly resolve, the defined problem. 2.3 Risks Encountered by Homeless Youth The homeless, especially the youth, encounter countless risks, of varying magnitude, in their life on the streets. These risks include, but are not limited to, sexual abuse, drug and alcohol use and health and psychological problems (Ayerst 1999). In a study on the risks which the homeless youth encounter, Rew, Taylor, and Fitzgerald (2001) found that 60.4% of youth participants reported they had been sexually abused. Participants who reported a history of sexual abuse were significantly more likely than non-abused participants to have used alcohol and/or marijuana. In this study Rew et al. (2001) emphasise that in the majority of case, homeless youth are not willing participants in the sexual act but are often forced into the act (rape) or engage in sex for survival, whereby participation is exchanged for food, shelter or money. While both forced and survival sex constitute risks to which the homeless youth are exposed, Beech, Myers, & Beech (2002) maintain that the sexual act functions as the doorway to a host of other problems. As a direct consequence of sex, Hepatitis B and C, not to mention HIV, and other sexually transmitted diseases, are prevalent among the homeless. Added to the above explicated risks, Beech, Myers, & Beech (2002) also found that the homeless confront multitudinous other risk factors in the form of, or as a consequence of, violence, poor nutrition, inadequate shelter, poor sanitary conditions, and mental illness (Beech et al., 2002). Care leavers also vulnerable to psychological problems. As Iglehart & Becerra (2002) contend, at a time when they are attempting to move toward adulthood, care leavers experience the traumatic and developmentally premature separation from family members (Iglehart & Becerra, 2002). Care leavers are expected to be independent earlier than their domiciled peers and, in the overwhelming majority of cases, prior to completing their education or finding stable employment (Collins, 2001). The implication here is that not only are they expected to take full responsibility for themselves earlier than most but they ate not endowed with the tools deemed essential for the capacity to do so, chief amongst which are education and a job. 2.4 Homelessness: The Risk Factors In a cross-cultural study, Kurtz, Jarvis, and Kurtz (1991) determined the exposition of the factors which contributed to youth homelessness in Western countries. The results of their study indicated that there were five causal factors. First, youth who are already members of homeless families are often separated from them because many shelters do not serve older youth. Youth from homeless families may be placed in foster care or emergency shelter system and consequently experience disintegration of ties with their families. Some studies, according to Kurtz et al. (1991)suggested that 40% of youth in foster care come from homeless families. A second reason why youth become homeless is to escape physical and sexual abuse (Kurtz et al., 1991). Kurtz et al. suggested the third reason why some youth become homeless is because they are thrown or pushed out of their homes by parents or guardians. A fourth group of homeless are those that are removed from homes at an early age because of family abuse, neglect, or unwillingness or inability to care for them. They are taken into state custody and become foster youth. The fifth group of homeless youth are members of minority groups who have immigrated to Great Britain, whether legally or as illegal asylum seekers, and are attempting to make themselves inconspicuous. Due to their lack of legal status and fear of facing deportation, they try to avoid government attention. A review of the literature indicated that is relative consensus regarding the causes of homelessness. These causes may be grouped under three general categories, the literature on which is presented in the below. 2.5.1 Social Support Many researchers have suggested that children are able to increase their capacity to deal with aversive stressors through the use of social supports (Barrera & Garrison, 1992). There are several types of important support that individuals need in order to facilitate coping with and adapting to change. According to Valery and OConnor (1997) the three types of support children benefit from receiving are: emotional, esteem, and instrumental or problem-focused support. Emotional support is defined as information parents provide to their children to indicate that they love and care for them. Esteem support is defined as information parents provide to their children to indicate they value them, and instrumental support is knowledge parents give to their children. Research suggests that parents coping assistance is maintained into adolescence. These forms of support have been found to be necessary for enhancing the childs well-being; however, foster children rarely receive these kinds of support (Valery & O’Connor, 1997). All young people must attain a large amount of knowledge to function self-sufficiently in society. For the majority of adolescents, learning life skills occurs both formally and informally over a period of years, normally within family (Mallon, 1998). In contrast, young people growing up in foster care or in institutional state care, are deprived of the advantage of a stable home environment and have a limited opportunity to learn life skills (Mallon). For adolescents who have grown up in foster care or state care, relationships with birth parents are often nonexistent. Even when these relationships survive, the parents or adolescents are often unwilling to undergo the readjustments required by reunification. Overall, less than 40% of care leavers return to their birth homes (Barth, 1996). Unfortunately, many youth leave care without a strong positive connection with a caring adult; therefore, they have do not have a social support system (Mech, 1994). As children in care experience numerous transitions and disruptions, moving back and forth between foster homes, shelters, and group care, they are less likely to trust adults and, indeed, may not have formed any lasting and constructive relationship with an adult figure (Whitbeck & Hoyt, 1999). Mallon (1998) found that only half of the 50 participants were able to identify an adult whom they felt they could turn to during difficult times. Added to that, Farrell (2004) found that care leavers confront substantial difficulties when renting an apartment with no parent to cosign a lease, finding money for a security deposit, and getting to work and school without transport money and, indeed, being able to provide nutrition for themselves (Ferrell, 2004). With no family to fall back on, care leavers confront countless challenges Overall, research suggests that social support networks are essential in developing a foundation for independence. Those who have supportive relationships after discharge are more likely to be functioning better after care than those who do not have such supports. Most care leavers have no guarantees of support from adults in getting settled in the worlds of employment, higher education, and housing. 2.4.2 Education and Employment Studies show that the educational achievement level of care leavers is low and studies point to disrupted education and difficulties in school performance and adjustment, mainly as a result of disruption caused by changing schools. Literature indicates that the education of in-care youth is interrupted when the child enters care or returns to birth families (Blome, 1997). One study found that 59% of cared-for children were functioning below grade level, including 11% who were 3 to 5 years behind (Blome). Other studies have found that more than half of these youth do not complete their education and are unemployed, and about 40% parent a child or end up on welfare (Marks, 2000). 2.4.2 Saving and Finances Although youth in state care receive some basic financial education, coursework without hands-on preparations has shown to have little value. Mallon (1998) noted that several youth reported they would have benefited from being more educated on how to handle and budget money. 2.5 Legislature Legislature is an integral enabler of caring for youth and ensuring that the neglected and abused are provided with the requisite care, whether in a foster or state care setting. REVIEW LEGISLATURE 2.6 Theoretical Perspective When viewed from an ecological perspective, experiences that youth encounter while in care may affect their self-esteem and, ultimately, the outcomes of their lives may be influenced as well (Maluccio, Krieger, & Pine, 1990). “The ecological perspective is a social science perspective, which focuses on the social and physical context of individual or family behavior, locating it in the context of interdependence with other social systems” (Longres, 1995, p. 535). An individual in care who experiences various movements within governmental systems may learn to become dependent on systems and lack connection to individuals who promote an increase in self-reliance. Bass (1994) also explained that “the instability caused by frequent moves between environments can impede a youths natural strengths and sense of direction” (p. 2). It is possible that an emancipated youth may become dependent on others providing for him/her due to the enabling that may occur while in a "system." These youth may view participation in the criminal justice system or dependence on welfare as a standard way of living as adults. Read More