Religions of the Caribbean and Latin America - Essay Example

Voodoo and Santeria in Latin America and the French Caribbean Introduction The religions of the Caribbean and Latin America, including Creole regions such as Haiti, Trinidad, the Bahamas and Cuba, Puerto Rico and Jamaica, and landed areas such as Honduras, Guyana and Venezuela, Columbia and parts of Mexico which are known as the Diaspora, is commonly viewed through observation of the most well-known religious observance in the area: Voodoo. This religion is seen not only in Haiti, where its origins lie, but also in Mexico and South America, and most famously in New Orleans, where its practitioners have included Dr John, the shaman Drummer, and Marie Laveau, the New Orleans healer. It is from the academic studies of this religion that we have received some of the most powerful images of modern mystery faiths. It is also known as Vodou, Vodun, and many other variations, depending upon the writer concerned. As at attempt at compromise, Voodoo will be used to discuss the Haitian religion as a cultural signifier, while Vodun (which means spirit or sacred) will be used to discuss the actual religion of the area. Vodun, moreover, is not the only religion in the area based upon the entwined influence of African Gods, Christian imagery, and native American shaman faiths. Other interesting religions of the area include Santeria, the faith of the Yoruba in Cuba and the Diaspora, Candomble, and Umbanda. These three religions are referred to under the umbrella term of 'Macumba'. While this essay will study the differences and similarities between the Vodun and Santeria, the other religions of this region are also worthy of mention, as they have produced transculturation in differing ways, especially Umbanda, which is unusual even for the area: Umbanda in perhaps the youngest of these forms only emerging in 1904 and strangely enough being a fusion not of Christian and African beliefs, but Hindu, Buddhist and African beliefs. (Patrice, 2003, page 7) Even such a well-known religion such as Jamaican Rastafarianism, which is fundamentally a Christian religion, combines elements of a pan-African religious perspective, including There would be a mystic return to the African homelandlinked to notions of cultural recovery through a spiritual connection to the African homeland. The belief in the soul's return to Africa after death was widespread in the Caribbean. (Olmos and Paravisini-Gebert. 2003, page 156-7) Rastafarianism is a connection between the deeply religious Christian community, and the equally religious Pan-African faiths of the Caribbean. Furthermore, the idea of a spiritual movement back to Africa after death ties it in strongly to the Vodun, Candomble, and even Espiritismo, which is the Creole interpretation of spiritualism in areas such as Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Southern states of the United States. In all the religions of the Caribbean so far discussed, the importance of spiritual connection with the dead, with ancestors in Africa, and direct contact with the gods, or Lwa, who will be discussed later. Voodoo is seen by outsiders as a very 'dark' faith, one in which the priests and priestesses kill their enemies through magic, the famous 'voodoo' dolls, and rites which involve animal sacrifice (and human sacrifice too, it is alleged). Other myths of voodoo imagine the creation of many Zombies as workers, have become the staple of horror movies, and TV shows such as 'Hex'. Santeria, while associated with Vodun, concentrates much more upon the worship of Gods in the guises of Catholic Saints. The very name means 'Worship (or way) of the Saints", and so provides a perfect example of the mixing of Christian and African religions in this melting pot of faiths known as the Caribbean. This essay seeks to analyze the true religions of Vodun and Santeria, approaching the faiths through a history of the people, from a consideration of the cultural influences of both religions, to the nature of the worship before Slavery was abolished. The role of Voodoo in Haiti and New Orleans will be considered, along with an account of the major beliefs and deities of the Gods. At this point consideration will be given to the different aspects of the Gods in Rada and Petro, two of the important 'paths' in Vodun (Rada is the standard of the faith; Petro may be considered 'left-hand-path', the worship of the darker aspects of the gods, for example Erzulie La Flambeau). The essay will then consider the important practice of possession, culminating with a look at the myths of voodoo. An analysis of Santeria, including its development in Cuba, the worship known as Regla de Ocha, the paths of the Saints, and the Yoruba, and also the notions of Santeria as an Earth religion. The essay will conclude with a consideration of the influence which Native Americans had upon the religious development of both Vodun and Santeria, with especial emphasis upon Ancestor Worship and shamanistic practices. This consideration will be followed by a conclusion on the differing aspects of religion in the Caribbean A Brief History It is widely acknowledged that the Creole religions such as Vodun and Santeria are based upon the faiths of ancestors brought to the Americas as Slaves. This practice began in the sixteenth century, and was finally ended only in the Nineteenth. Slaves were not brought just from one location, nor were slaves from one area transported to the same place, and the colonial leaders divided them into new 'nations', with separate names, upon arrival in the Caribbean. Therefore, the slaves of each island did not have one culture, but rather many. This was profoundly influential in the development of Voodoo as a cultural belief; for the most part, The Roots of Haitian Voodoo lie in Africathe term 'Voodoo' comes from the language of the African tribes Fon and Eve. (Owusu, 2000, page 9) African slaves brought over to the Americans shared an experience known as transculturation, which means that a number of cultural practices and beliefs are exchanged, usually very rapidly; from this new culture is born. This has been described as: "The most massive accultural even in human history"Africans experiences multiple levels of acculturation: an initial adaptation to new languages and customs in exchange with slaves of other cultures, and later with the culture of their masters. (Olmos and Paravisini-Gebert, 2003, page 14) It is widely accepted that slaves were forced to worship in Christian churches, as part of a 'Civilizing' of the African savage. Obeah, and Vodun were both outlawed by the Colonial authorities, and for the most part, the African slaves submitted - at least on the surface. It is clearly demonstrated in both Vodun and Santeria that the Christian worship was converted to a polytheistic religion by the slaves: The Voudoun faith has merely been receptive to compatible elements from a sister faith, and has integrated these into its basic structure subtly transfiguring and adjusting their meaning where necessary to African tradition. (Deren, 2004, page 56). Prior to the Abolition of Slavery, therefore, we can see that Africans were nominally converted to Christianity, but were in fact worshipping the saints as their native deities. Therefore, the Pantheon of Saints which Creole religions worship have had their original connections to Catholicism virtually severed. The influences of such slavery can be seen in the use of French names and phrases in Voodoo, particularly for the titles of the gods, and the use of Spanish names for a similar purpose in Santeria. Voodoo in Haiti and New Orleans The story of Voodoo in Haiti should really begin with the revolt of the Slaves against the French Colonialists between 1791 and 1803. The Revolt was begun by a Vodun shaman called 'Boukman', who sacrificed a boar to the Lwa on 14 August 1791. This "Represented the consolidation of the connection between Vodou and the Haitian spirit of resistance"(Olmos and Paravisini-Gebert (2003) page 103). For many years, African slaves had been escaping, and uniting with the Native Americans who had retreated to the mountains. In Haitian Voodoo practice, the oungan or mambo's power is both religious and social - for instance, the priest may assist those who are in need for free, or for a token payment, seeing their congregation as an extended family. In Haiti, the Oungan or Mambo are 'chosen' by the Gods through affliction, possession, or some other sign. This is comparable with Shamanistic beliefs, where the Shaman is revealed through signs such as epilepsy, deformity, or visions. The Voodoo practice in New Orleans has tended to be a sharper, more music-based tradition, with many of the developers of the faith in the City being worshipped as ancestors, and maybe even on the road to becoming Lwa themselves. The importance of Lwa in New Orleans Voodoo has been the cornerstone of the cultural development there, with women playing a very important part, possibly more important than in Haitian religion, where men and women serve the gods as priests and priestesses equally. New Orleans remains the hope of a Voodoo Queen returning, and leading the Voodoo practitioners. Voodoo here is more of a career choice, not a vocation. Whether in Haiti or New Orleans, Vodun is characterized by worship of the Lwa, or divine spirits. They are also called Divine Horsemen, in reference to their tendency to possess their followers. One of the most important aspects of Lwa worship in both Haiti and New Orleans is the Vever. This is a drawing or pattern, often extremely complex and time-consuming, which is drawn on the floor of the temple with cornflour. Each Lwa has a separate symbol for the Vever, often connected to their roles in Vodun. Each Loa has his traditional symbol, or Vever. The basic form, and certain details, are traditionally fixed. The cross-roads is the sign for Legba, the heart is for Erzulie: a boat represents Agwe; serpents are for Damballah and Ayida, etc. (Deren, 2004, page 204) Vodun essentially worships one God, known as the 'Great one'. However, below this chief god, there are an enormous number of Spirits, or lesser Gods known as Lwa. The Haitian Slaves retained the concept of 'nations' for their Lwa, who are linked together according to the type of rites needed to deal with them. Two of these nations are Rada and Petro. These two nations often serve the same Lwa in different formations; for example, Erzulie, goddess of Love, is a beautiful woman whose possession of women frequently involves sexual displays, and "Mother of the myth of men's lifeshe is the very principle by which man conceives and creates divinity" (Deren, 2004, page 138). In Petro, however, she is Erzulie Ge-Rouge (red eye), a goddess of rage and vengeance "Awesome in her potency"(Deren, 2004. page 62). While Rada Lwa are generally the gentler and more accessible of the Gods, Petro Lwa are consumed by rage and hatred. Furthermore, while the Rada spirits are those of African tradition, the Petro are Adopted from the mythology of the native tribes who originally inhabited Haiti and the other islandsBrutality and cruelty are commonplace for the Petro-LwaDespite their bloodthirsty inclinations, the Petro Loa are not regarded as demonic beings by followers of Voodoo (Owusu, 2002, page 17) The important facts to bear in mind is that Haitian Voodoo has several different nations of Lwa, who are worshipped in different branches of the Vodun religion. While Rada practitioners may invoke Petro Lwa, and Petro, Rada Lwa, this is not common. Within the cultural practice of Voodoo, there exist several different Vodun religious practices and faiths. Possession The possession of members of a congregation by Lwa is very common in all styles of Voodoo, and makes Vodun a distinct religion, separate from other official faiths such as Christianity, Islam and Buddhism. While Christianity and Islam both have sects within the faith who experience 'possession' and speaking in tongues, this is not one of the dominant features of the religion; in Voodoo, it is. It is not necessary to be an experienced practitioner of Voodoo or Vodun in order to participate in possession; one of the academics who went to Haiti to make a film, Maya Deren, became possessed, and eventually ended up as a Vodun initiate. Possession is neither a good, nor bad; Lwa do not provide spiritual enlightenment: The possessed benefits least of all from his own possession never have I seen the face of anguish, ordeal and blind terror as at the moment when the loa comesit is towards thisthe forcing open of the door to the source - that the entire structure of Voudoun is directed. (Deren 2004, page 249). Possession is a cultural demand of voodoo; and while it is neither necessary, nor beneficial, the inclination of Voodoo culture is towards the possession of the practitioner by the spirits. For the most part, however, "The possessed from the possible effects of their own frenzy by the crowd which surrounds them"(Metraux, 1974, page 123) Possession in Petro is a much more dangerous affair than in Rada, for obvious reasons. In Petro, as the spirits fierce and bitter, they may be more maleficent. Most practitioners, however, believe that a Lwa cannot force anyone to act against their implications. Voodoo Dolls, Zombies, and Myths A great number of myths have risen up around the Vodun religion, including the use of Voodoo dolls to damage enemies at a distance, and the ability of Ougans and Mambas to create zombies - the "living dead". Creating miniature images of a person to use in magic has a long history - however, it is not an African tradition, but a European and Indian one - this being another example of the intermingling of cultures and faiths which characterizes Voodoo: Although Voodoo dolls are generally associated with Haitian Voodoo cults, this form of magic has a long tradition in many countriesold practices of Western witchcraft used candles instead of dolls, or worked with both. (Owusu, 2000, page 86) While Voodoo dolls have a long past in many witchcraft traditions, the practice of zombie creation seems unique to Voodoo. While most Vodun experts believe that Zombification exists, they believe that it is rare, and they are, in fact, created mostly through "The effects of the culturethe individual's expectation of what the drug will do to him or her, setting up the environmentin which the drug is taken" (March, 1990). Vodun Ougans and Mambas are often seen as devil worshippers, poisoners, and witchdoctors. In truth, the priests and priestesses of the religion are often well-versed in herbal and plant lore; this is part of their religious practice. There is, as yet, no evidence that any Ougan or Mamba has used their herbal knowledge to turn people into zombies; although it is very possible that herbs and plants have been used in magical spells to bind or hurt someone, as in traditional European witchcraft. As seems clear from other myths surrounding voodoo, what is being examined as fearful and evil is a cultural practice, not necessarily closely tied to the Vodun religion. Essential features of Vodun: - Evolved from African (Fon and Eve) religion, French Catholicism, and Native American Shamanism. Lwa Both priests and priestesses Possession and vevers Cultural practices such as Zombies and Poppets (dolls). Santeria Santeria evolved from a combination of African slave religion, and Spanish Catholicism: Although the first slaves arrived in Cuba as early as the sixteenth Century, it was the slaves brought to Cuba in the nineteenth century, especially the Yorubaand to a lesser extent the Bantu from the Congo, who were the major carriers of the African religious belies and practices (Lefever, 1996, page 320) Thus, while the Haitian Africans are mostly Fon and Eve, the Cuban Africans have a large percentage of Yoruba and Bantu. Santeria, commonly known as Regla de Ocha. As with Vodun, this religion worships a central God, with spirits or lesser divinities as the focus of people's devotion. Unlike Voodoo, however, Santeria worships these Orishas as Catholic saints, and "Many practitioners consider themselves Roman Catholic" (Moreno, 2000). Whilst Voodoo concentrates upon possession and Vever, Santeria bares comparison with Espiritismo, and it places emphasis upon "Divination": In Africathe most common forms involve the manipulation of palm nuts, cowrie shells or Kola nut valves. In Cuba, coconuts and seashells are utilized. Another formus a necklace about 50 inches long...with a mixture of concave and convex tortoise shell disks, ortin pieces. (Lefever, 1996, page 321). As well as divination, animal sacrifices are also necessary to appease the Orishas. There is a trance experience similar to possession, where the orisha "Mounts the head of the medium" (Lefever, 1996, page 322), it appears to be a much more organized and controlled ritual than in Vodun. The Saints are given a variety of different roles, and they are usually associated with a particular orisha, "Thus chagno, the Yoruba orisha of firewas identified with Santa Barbara, the patroness of Spanish artilleryshe is dressed in Red-Chango's symbolic color" (Olmos and Paravanisini-Gerbert, 2003, page 35-36). Saints remain a strong influence in the religion of Santeria, and in keeping with this tradition, there are few female priestesses in Santeria. Epiphany was a great Santeria festival until it was outlawed in the 1880's, and other Christian holy days are celebrated in Santeria. Santeria can be seen as a much stronger 'Earth' based religion than Haiti; Santeria places a lot of emphasis upon the ancestral inheritance of magic, the experience of a "Primordial life forceseen also as a 'Primal ancestral spirit'" (Olmos and Paravisini-Gebert, 2003, page 60). The combination of ancient power, plant and animal objects in divination (Scrying), and the use of animal sacrifice indicates that Santeria has developed in part to a religion which emphasizes connections with the natural world. There is a darker version of Santeria, known as Palo Mayombe; "Worshippers believe they are empowered by the remains of the deadkept in an urn called the Nganga." (Ovalle, 2003), As opposed to the mysterious nature of Vodun, Santeria is rapidly expanding, especially into Florida and the American mainland. Ancestor Worship, Original Faiths, and Shamanistic Practices The faiths of the original Native American inhabitants of the Caribbean may bear resemblance to the Don Juan of Carlos Castaneda; certainly, shamanistic beliefs and habits are common throughout the Americas. Not a small part of these faiths is the possession of the shaman by the gods, either literally, or through visions and dream quests where the Shaman speaks to the gods. This aspect of Native American religion can be seen in the practices of both Voodoo and Santeria. One example of this influence can be seen in the use of domestic altars in both Vodun and Santeria. Native American practice, as it is often involved with Shamanism, centers around the home; Vodun and Santeria followers have a home temple, and each may have spirits which are associated particularly with their family or home. Another practice of the South Americas which may have some connection with both Vodun and Santeria is that of ancestor worship - not the tracing of ancestors back to the Mayflower, but the use of cultural figures such as Dr John as intermediaries between the spirits and the living. The dead have a powerful hold on the imagination of the Creole religions; Vodun has even created Lwas of the dead, called Ghedes, or Les Barons, who are the spirits of dead figures with their own Lwa. Santeria practices ancestor worship through divination, and possession by ancestral forces similar to Spiritualism in the US. Conclusion While authors continue to place emphasis upon the origins of Creole faiths in African heritage, there is also a strong connection with both Christian saints and Native American beliefs. While both Vodun and Santeria have obvious roots in African faiths, these are not necessarily the same religion. Furthermore, these two Religions, no matter what their origins, have now developed separate patterns of practices and religious experience: for example, Voodoo places emphasis upon Lwa, and they clearly have a connection with the African gods of their ancestors, but Santeria instead views their Orisha as Catholic Saints, with the result that many Santerian followers believe themselves to be Roman Catholics, and there is in essence little diversion between Catholicism and the practice of Santeria. Vodun has no such claims to be a Christian sect. As well as religious symbolism which is connected with Catholicism, Santeria often celebrates Roman Catholic holy days within the religion; Voodoo does not celebrate these days within the religion. While Vodun places emphasis upon possession by the Lwa, and their particular Vever, or symbol, Santeria instead considers divination to be important, followed by medium's possession by the Orisha; while the possession might be comparable in these cases, the latter is more a spontaneous eruption, which Santeria seems to be a regulated and formal invasion, much as the possession of a spiritualist in English-Speaking countries. Vodun possession is for everyone - Santerian possession is a limited experience. While Vodun and Santeria both make use of domestic altars, and familial spirits, in Santeria this altar is also a Catholic shrine-site, where statues of saints and symbols representing the different Orisha are placed side by side on the same shelf. In Vodun, of course, there is no connection with the catholic faith, and more emphasis is placed upon space to draw a vever, and also with space for possession. In the same vein, Voodoo culture involves both men and women in similar roles within the community; they may be Ougan and Mamba at the same level, and possessed in equal terms. Santeria is a priest-based faith (They may even share priests with the local Catholic Church), and women take secondary roles, only rarely becoming priestesses, although women can hold places of high esteem. In conclusion, it is possible to see the origins of both Vodun and Santeria in the beliefs of African tribes, but these have become connected through time both with Catholic Saints, native American practices, and some Western witchcraft practices such as use of dolls. Vodun and Santeria themselves have taken different parts of this cultural mix in order to develop into two distinct religions, and although their common heritage is very similar, in their current practice, they only superficially resemble each other. Bibliography Boston Globe (2004) "Cuban Slaves Spawned Santeria" The Boston Globe November 4 2004. Blue Moon Manor "Santeria" http://www.blue-moon-manor.com/articles/santeria.html Brown, Ras Michael (2000) "West Central African Nature Spirits in the South Carolina Lowcountry" Southeastern Regional Seminar in African Studies (SERSAS) 27-28 October 2000 Deren, Maya (2004)Horsemen: The Living Gods of Haiti Documentext (Mcpherson and Company) New York. Lefever, Harry (1996) "When the Saints Go Riding in: Santeria in Cuba and the United States" Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion Vol 35, no 3 pages 318-330 March, Bob Corbett (1990) "Review of: Passage of Darkness: The ethnobiology of the Haitian Zombie http://www.websteruniv.edu/corbetre/haiti/bookreviews/davi.1.htm Metraux, Alfred (1974) Sphere Books, London Moreno, Sylvia (2000) "The Spirit of Santeria" The Washington Post January 4 2000. Olmos, Margaret Fernandez, and Paravisini-Gebert, Lisabeth (2003) Creole Religions of the Caribbean New York University Press (New York) Ovalle, David (2003) "Animal Sacrifice all in a Day's Work" The Miami Herald April 16 2003. Owusu, Heike (2002) Voodoo Rituals Sterling, New York Patrice, Merle (2003) Voodoo and Santeria Corvus Books, Yorkshire, UK. Religious Movements (2007) "Santeria" http://religiousmovements.lib.virginia.edu/nrms/santeria.html Read More