The Role of Television in Government Agenda and International Relations - Literature review Example

The Role of Television in Government Agenda and International Relations Name Course Instructor Institution Location Date Many proponents of cultural globalization assert that there are cultural flows from the North to the south that leads to Northern hegemony and destruction of local culture in the South. Theorists such as Klein and Claude assert that the cultural globalisation is teleological and propagates Northern imperialism (Pieterse 2009).The growth of information and communication technology is responsible for the current establishments in terms and ideas of world markets. The persons that are well-off and privileged stand to benefit significantly in the world market as a result of quick adaptation to dynamic economic policies and practises (William 2011) Consumption of goods produced from the north causes obliteration of local difference hence creating hegemonisation. This paper examines the role of television in government policies and international relations. The concept of generic westernization faces opposition from scholars such as Paul Zeleza and Daniel Miller that argue against the existence of passive receptacles of alien cultural products. The mass media are responsible for the continued prospects of global cultural hybridisation through hegemonisation. The hegemonising process occurs due to marketing processes Multinational clothing and shoe companies control the youth subculture forms such as ghetto music and the dress codes on the urban peripheries of North America. Nike Company manipulates the unique local meanings through the process of branding. The youths purchase the products on the basis of cultural meanings that the company attaches to the goods. Anholt (2008) as quoted by Zhang (2012) claims that there is a remarkable decrease in frequency of international media in USA over the last two decades. The reasons behind the decline are the notion of minimal contact between the US and states whose news United States airs (Gilboa 2005). The airing can taunt the public image of the United States abroad. Mass media expresses attitudes of individuals towards various issues. Anholt (2008) as quoted by Zhang (2012) also claims that Globalization raises a concern by governments and countries about the image they portray internationally. Television programmes from a particular country can be aired internationally. The image that television programs air can affect can be economic, cultural, legal, public opinions, political, and diplomatic. The image also determines warfare and terrorism activities, freedoms and rights of citizens, ecological problems, refugees, and health. The countries put forward as an illustration include Iraq, Bosnia, Somalia, and Chechnya (Gilboa 2005). According to Gilboa (2005), the global vision of states entails public diplomacy, international perceptions and relations. The image is parallel to the countries' reputation internationally. The combined judgement of foreign country's image and character is a form of soft power (Zhang et al., 2012). Anholt argues that the country's reputation is similar to a company or commodity public image. An establishment of Overseas Propaganda department is an example of China's approach to managing her public image. Studies show the unit forming white papers to confront the external attack of Chinas image that is tainted from the issue of Tibet and human rights in 199. Gilboa (2005) also uses an illustration of the cleanup campaign of Saudi Arabia’s image due to the international reputation of harbouring terrorists in 2004. A multi-million repair campaign to reinstate the previous positive image is established. The campaign involves spots on us media outlets, engaging in foreign speaking and polling against the American public opinions about the Saudi Arabia. Studies assert that the international perception of the country can depend on media reports, the existing policies and the country's products and services. Tang & Li (2010) claims that companies that sell internationally brand nations of origin on the commodities (Zhang et al., 2012). The image provides a healthy environment for economic sectors such as tourism, import and export trade, international job market and diplomatic dealing (Gilboa 2005). Positive valence and high profile lead to a positive international image and vice versa (Giffard & Riveburgh 2000). Research shows that that media holds an important wave of the public agenda. The example of the emerging agenda includes fighting drug abuse campaigns, advocating gay marriage, public possession of guns and employment (Allen et al., 2005). Experimental ideas support the existence of a causal relationship between media and public agenda at the personal level. Current ICT enhance warnings to leverage information from within communities. The stakeholders that participate in stabilization use ICT such as internet and other communication devices (including television coverage) to pursue their goals. Telecommunication enhances resolution of differences between individual and social groups. There is forgiveness, and forgetting and abandonment of long-standing discriminations, animosities and atrocities to enhance security, opportunity and improved life. An example is the Truth and Reconciliation commission of South Africa. Balanced and well-informed media coverage can build confidence and encourage political, economic and social-cultural stabilization (Allen et al., 2005). Research has it that international media coverage sets foundations for public opinion with respect to foreign relations. The negative image creates salience and negative public attitudes (Gilboa 2005). Political manoeuvres, declaring a war legitimate, international business, celebrating identities and searching for partners is dependent on the media. Broadcasting of market externalities that command global and local consumption is dependent, global television channels (Friedmann 2008). A research by Want and his colleagues in the year 2004 to determine media image versus country reputation in USA indicates the presence of negative correlation between the two. The increase in negative coverage of the country by US international media causes negative attitudes about the country in the international scène. The theory of international relations asserts that international television channels such as CNN and BBC determine policies and outcomes of significant events in various countries (Gilboa 2005). The efficient and timely coverage of the clashes by the electronic media enhances creation of a powerful, urgent remedy in the countries. However, other researchers such as Colin Powell assert that immediate television coverage of the scenes increases undertaking the remedial actions in situations of ethnic and civil wars and humanitarian activities after the era of the cold war (Gilboa 2005). Anchoring of CNN international crises news enables responsible parties to redirect to them as emergencies. There are possibilities of public outcry for appropriate actions during crises. There is higher popularity of television than press. Some researchers claim that the existence of a correlation between media attitudes and public opinion is insufficient for deduction that there exist cause-effect relationships and relationship between public opinions and policy changing. The connection between media reporting, opinion of the public, and policy is insignificant. Besides USA, the case applies to Britain according to the research conducted by a scholar called Shaw (Gilboa 2005).CNN presenting does not change the public policy, but it allows for making of the policy in a particular country. Visibility entails the amount of media coverage that the state receives in the media whereas valence encompasses the negative or positive portrayal that a country receives from the media. Some studies indicate the existence of a connection between public opinion, media reporting and policy programmes. Mohamed and Gunter examine the role of setting Agenda in Egypt in 2009. There is analysis of the influences of the media programmes and the public programmes about the government's newspaper agenda. The research indicates that media that is run independently had a greater influence on public view than the government plan. Also, irrespective of the positive relationship between the media agenda and public opinion, a governmental policy alteration as responses can fail; another weakness entails applicability of using foreign countries as subjects for analysis through multilevel agenda-setting theory. For decades, studies show that the media can be successful in influencing a number of policies. The information processing perspective depicts, that negative information generating a stronger effects than positive information. Negative information on the cognitive process in the political scenario can lead to a perception of threats, potential adverse consequences, perception neglecting of the concern. Some scholars employ qualitative and quantitative methodologies to study the direct and indirect effects of international CNN television. The scientists apply social sciences disciplines such as psychology, communication, political science and international relations. Journalists employ interviews with policy makers whereas scholars use a combination of interviews and content analysis. Usage of interview studies raises questions because of the issue of determining the validity of the interview questions (Gilboa 2005). The two examples of explanations of government relations include the hypotheses of indexing and manufacturing consent. The theories portray media as a reflection of government interests thus becoming a tool of policy makers (Klaehn & Mullen 2010). Deeper explorations of the idea lead to contradictory results that there exists CNN effect of enhancing policy making. The US intervention in Kosovo crisis and the Post-Vietnam cold war, era is an illustration. The weakness of the previous studies arises from the unclear methodology. The manufacturing consent or the propaganda model asserts that the government can mobilize the public support for the policies through the media. The assertion is an expression of control for grip of economic power (Gilboa 2005). The media, state and leading elites focus on debates and themes within frames of reference to attaining the objective. Scholars use facts from the media as status quo to validate the theory, similar to the Kosovo crisis Shaw and Miller use behavioural sciences to examine the role of CNN effect in USA intervention in Iraq-Kurdish crisis. They examine the clamour that media is better in representing victims of national and international violence and oppression than national and international organizations and movements. Shaw uses a triangular correlation between media coverage, public attitudes, and shifts in official policy to support his primary hypothesis about media effects on British policy (Gilboa 2005). Political scientists use realist methodology and the theory of substitution to study factors that determine international military intervention (George & Bennett 2005). The realist approach aims to rule that global television coverage can lead to humanitarian interventions. Application of the approach persuasively to humanitarian interventions can invalidate the CNN effect. An example is the Gibbs research that uses the realist approach to the intervention in Somalia in 2000. The study obtains an explanation that negates the CNN effect of enhancing policy formulation and emphasizes on American national interests instead (George & Bennett 2005). Another study by Regan uses substitution theory to examine military intervention to explore the conditions under which the U.S. changes its intervention strategies in civil conflicts and the types of interventions. He finds out that media coverage can indeed be significantly influential. The weakness for the study is variable shortcomings. Regan’s analysis covers only the press (New York Times) hence it is a weak study of the effect of media in policy making (Gilboa 2005). Unlike Shaw, Miller uses positioning hypothesis psychology to examine the linkages between media coverage and policies in Britain and the United States. The study occurs in 2002, and it focuses on the policymaking process and consequently. The study distinguishes between the rhetoric of the media coverage and pressure and the processes of making of policies. The method allows for analysis of verbal communication between the media and the government in press conferences and official responses (Gilboa 2005).The weakness of the methodology is failure to encompass print media in the study. Ammon claims that the change of telecommunication and diplomacy produces a paradigm of telediplomacy (Gilboa 2005). He elaborates on how the surfacing and development of instantaneous global news coverage causes the change in communication. The new diplomacy that contains openness is the root for the change of foreign policies. The result, telediplomacy, has displaced the existing diplomatic methods, and for the first time in human history, under certain conditions, it also drives policy and determines diplomatic outcomes. Edwards develops a new media concept that works fill the emptiness in the other approaches of linking media with politics. Edwards examines a number of media-government relations in different states. The model has a weakness of inefficient defining items and confusing in some areas. For instance, there is no addressing of dissimilar political systems. The Scholarly and professional studies display mixed, contradictory, and confusing perceptions of CNN (Gilboa 2005). The Coverage of the massacre and exodus of the Kurds generates public pressures that enhance slowing down the American military withdrawal from Iraq and forcing the return to help assist and protect the victims of Saddam Hussein's revenge (Atkeson 2011). The language of the study's conclusion is strong but demonstrates inefficient evidence about the link between public policy and media. Shaw arrives at a similar conclusion about the British policy toward the same crisis in 1996: It is the media that compels the Western powers intervention in the Middle East. However, the correlation he finds between media attitudes and public opinion is insufficient to establish a cause-effect relationship and connection between public opinion and change of policies. Miller's research of 2002 contradicts the conclusions of Schorr and Shaw by claiming that the United States and Britain only adapted their strategies to accommodate the refugee crisis and the Turkey pressures. He concludes that the inference of CNN fact holds if the moral action, policymaking, administrative change of the policies in the US is less important than adapting the strategies to new realities (Gilboa 2005). However, this was not the case. Recent Cohen's 1994 Studies of the U.S. intervention in Somalia is a basis for studies of the CNN effect, and it also yields similar controversial results. He claims that a television has the power to move movements. Daily TV anchoring on the case of children starvation in Somalia mobilizes the ethics of the state's public institutions by compelling the government to set up humanitarian policy intervention (Gilboa 2005). The US decision to intervene militarily in Somalia is due to diplomacy and bureaucracy. Eachus argues that policymakers employ humanitarian justifications, but there is more concern on strategic and economic interests. The concerns include Somalia's closeness to the Red Sea shipping routes and the Bab-el-Mandeb straits where an American oil company has investments in oil exploration (Robinson 2005). Gowing (1994) as quotes by Gilboa (2005) argues that CNN's coverage draws attention to crises that evoke emotional public reactions. By basing arguments on interviews, he concludes that governments resist public pressure to act exclusively in response to television information. He quotes the Western states refrain from intervention in the Bosnian crisis despite the considerable media coverage of atrocities in 1991. Gilboa (2005) quotes Edwards studies of many countries and the most important events media coverage. The events include the protests in Tiananmen Square, the collapsing of the USSR, the democracy development in Eastern Europe, the end of apartheid policy in South Africa, and the Balkans and African civil wars. He claims that the mass media played an influential role in all of the events and processes. Conclusion Despite the clamour for television power of influence in decision making, media are portrayed to be and agent for international policies. However, there is no direct relationship between formulation and implementation of the policies with the media coverage. The conclusion arises from the inability of proponents of CNN effect to substantiate the claim. The opponents of the effect on the other hand subject all the claims of their counterparts to question. References Allen, Tim and Nicole Stremlau, (2005) ‘Media policy, peace and state reconstruction: discussions paper no 8, London: Development Studies Institute Atkeson, M. G. E. B. (2011). The New Legions: American Strategy and the role of Power. Freedman, Des, 2008, ‘Introduction of media policies,’ in Politics of Media Policy, London: Polity, Chapter 1, (P95. 8 .F73 2008 ) George, A. L., & Bennett, A. (2005). The theory of development in the social sciences. Mit Press Giffard, C. A., & Rivenburgh, N. K. (2000). News agencies, national images, and global media events. Journalism & Mass communication quarterly, 77(1), 8-21. Gilboa, E. (2005). The CNN effect: The search for a communication theory of international relations. N, 22(1), 27-44 Klaehn, J., & Mullen, A. (2010). The propaganda by sociology: Understanding the media and society. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. Melody, William H. 2011) ‘The global village of Who?’ The book of global media and communication policies, Wiley- Blackwell, pp. 58-78 (P 95. 8 .H365 2011 Electronic version) Pieterse, J. N. (2009). Globalization and culture: Global mélange. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. Robinson, P. (2005). The CNN effect: The myth of news, foreign policy and intervention. Routledge Zhang, Cui and Charles William Meadows III, (2012) ‘International coverage, foreign policy , and national image: The current Complexities of Media Coverage, Opinion of citizens, and Presidential Agenda’ Journal 6, pp. 76-95. Retrieved from, http://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/viewFile/1424/68 Read More

Anholt argues that the country's reputation is similar to a company or commodity public image. An establishment of Overseas Propaganda department is an example of China's approach to managing her public image. Studies show the unit forming white papers to confront the external attack of Chinas image that is tainted from the issue of Tibet and human rights in 199. Gilboa (2005) also uses an illustration of the cleanup campaign of Saudi Arabia’s image due to the international reputation of harbouring terrorists in 2004.

A multi-million repair campaign to reinstate the previous positive image is established. The campaign involves spots on us media outlets, engaging in foreign speaking and polling against the American public opinions about the Saudi Arabia. Studies assert that the international perception of the country can depend on media reports, the existing policies and the country's products and services. Tang & Li (2010) claims that companies that sell internationally brand nations of origin on the commodities (Zhang et al., 2012). The image provides a healthy environment for economic sectors such as tourism, import and export trade, international job market and diplomatic dealing (Gilboa 2005).

Positive valence and high profile lead to a positive international image and vice versa (Giffard & Riveburgh 2000). Research shows that that media holds an important wave of the public agenda. The example of the emerging agenda includes fighting drug abuse campaigns, advocating gay marriage, public possession of guns and employment (Allen et al., 2005). Experimental ideas support the existence of a causal relationship between media and public agenda at the personal level. Current ICT enhance warnings to leverage information from within communities.

The stakeholders that participate in stabilization use ICT such as internet and other communication devices (including television coverage) to pursue their goals. Telecommunication enhances resolution of differences between individual and social groups. There is forgiveness, and forgetting and abandonment of long-standing discriminations, animosities and atrocities to enhance security, opportunity and improved life. An example is the Truth and Reconciliation commission of South Africa. Balanced and well-informed media coverage can build confidence and encourage political, economic and social-cultural stabilization (Allen et al., 2005). Research has it that international media coverage sets foundations for public opinion with respect to foreign relations.

The negative image creates salience and negative public attitudes (Gilboa 2005). Political manoeuvres, declaring a war legitimate, international business, celebrating identities and searching for partners is dependent on the media. Broadcasting of market externalities that command global and local consumption is dependent, global television channels (Friedmann 2008). A research by Want and his colleagues in the year 2004 to determine media image versus country reputation in USA indicates the presence of negative correlation between the two.

The increase in negative coverage of the country by US international media causes negative attitudes about the country in the international scène. The theory of international relations asserts that international television channels such as CNN and BBC determine policies and outcomes of significant events in various countries (Gilboa 2005). The efficient and timely coverage of the clashes by the electronic media enhances creation of a powerful, urgent remedy in the countries. However, other researchers such as Colin Powell assert that immediate television coverage of the scenes increases undertaking the remedial actions in situations of ethnic and civil wars and humanitarian activities after the era of the cold war (Gilboa 2005).

Anchoring of CNN international crises news enables responsible parties to redirect to them as emergencies. There are possibilities of public outcry for appropriate actions during crises.

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