Mass Media & Public Opinion in Australian Foreign Policy - Essay Example

Running Head: Mass Media & Public Opinion in Australian Foreign Policy Mass Media & Public Opinion in Australian Foreign Policy of writer appears here] [Name of institution appears here] Mass Media & Public Opinion in Australian Foreign Policy Abstract .Strong public opinion and media influence can change the complete political scene of any country. No government can survive without public and media support. There is no doubt that public influence and mass media have a great impact on foreign policy decision making. Public opinion and media have central place in the making foreign policy in Australia. Everyone from politicians to academics now agrees that public communications systems play a vital role in society. It is through the news media in particular that citizens are able to stay informed and play an active role in the construction of their democratic world. It is argued, however that the media is too influential on public opinion; and it is the proprietors of the industry making all of the decisions.world. What role does Public opinion and media play in the making foreign policy in Australia is the central research question of this paper. It is in relation to this debate that it becomes crucial to analyse the critical political economy of the news media. The critical political economy is the power and influence exerted by media owners, government and culture for the forming of country's foreign policies.The content and information presented in this paper is based on research and survey conducted by leading agencies to study the media and public opinion influence of foreign policy decision making in Australia. Influence of Mass Media in Australia Foreign Policy The media is an extremely influential factor in society. Is the media a political institution, in that it decides who gets what, when and how through formal organizations and procedures Or is it a business The radical theory suggests that 'the media generates content that garners the greatest profit'1 (Ranganathan, 2002) The liberal theory of the media suggests that it is not just what interests the public, but what is in the best interest of the public. News is the reporting of facts, or news otherwise not known. (Oxford Dictionary, 1992:74) Originally, news was broadcasted on radio, always with one white, male presenter reading the entire bulletin. 'The Australian Broadcasting Commission felt that in those days to use pictures, was to descend to the levels of the popular press.'(Mason & Lean, 1992:42) Today, on the other hand, findings from various surveys conclude that television is the most popular news source and the one in which the majority of the public lay their trust.A survey conducted on 60 Australia all- party political decision makers from both Federal and State Governments showed the great influence that mass media and public opinion exert on foreign policy decision making in Australia. The survey can be summarized as follows2: Media + Community= Highest Influence on Government The findings reveal that Australian politicians are most influenced by the public opinion and media. Use of local newspaper and politician's local community is known to be considered as two main critical points to influence their decision-making. Timely data + Active public engagement= Effective tool for influencing on Government. Provision of timely & accurate market and direct, active public engagement are considered as most effective and powerful communication tools for making a point to government. The role of media is reporting of facts, events or news otherwise not known. . Originally, news was broadcasted on radio, always with one white, male presenter reading the entire bulletin. 'The use of pictures in those days was considered as descending the levels of the very much popular press. .Today, on the other hand, findings from various surveys conclude that television is the most popular news source and the one in which the majority of the public lay their trust. In terms of television media as a whole, it is the news and current affairs programmes which rate so highly. They play great role in making public opinion and giving a direction to government for future policies. Nine News/ Sunday rated number one in Melbourne's top 10 programmes, followed by Nine News/ Saturday rating 3rd, and Nine News/ Weeknights rating 10th. (Warneke, 2002:10)3 In relation to media policy-making, politicians' main two concerns are about the power of media content to impact on public opinion, and the extent of control over media content-especially news- by media owners4. (Cunningham& Turner, 2002:40-41) This was traditionally a Labour view, however former leader Arthur Conwell, one of the greatest labour haters off the press, said of them 'What a press! It is owned for the most part by financial crooks and is edited for the most part by mental harlots'5. (Cunningham& Turner, 2002:41) Politicians from all parties, in Australia and beyond, have never been slow to bring direct pressure on broadcasters. 'In the run-up to the 1997 General Election the conservatives announced the re-birth of their media-monitoring unit'6 (Briggs & Cobley, 1998:404). This was aimed to increase the sensitivity of the BBC in Britain to political pressure, by attacking it's coverage of the U.S.A's bombing in Libya. The extreme concentration and lack of diversity in the Australian media industry, is the ultimate reason behind such powerful private interests. Not just anyone can set up a television network to broadcast news, or similarly a newspaper, as 'The huge start up costs, the concentrated supply and distribution costs, the distribution of advertising revenue, all seem to lend themselves to oligopoly and away from the flexibility and openness cherished by free market theorists' 7(Cunningham & Turner, 2002:38) Cross media ownership laws in Australia do however limit ownership of multiple media forms, as 'the greater the play of market forces, the greater the 'freedom' of consumer choice.'8 (Golding & Murdock, 1991:15-32) The laws are one of the standards set and received by the Australian Broadcasting Association, and are crucial to the balance of players in Australia's media industries. The broadcasting control board, although not a form of punishment, regulates what is deemed appropriate to be shown on television. The Board is charged under the Broadcasting and Television Act, to 'ensure that adequate and comprehensive programmes are provided by commercial television stations to serve the best interests of the general public, and to determine programme standards and standards subject to which advertisements may be broadcast and televised.' 9(Western, 1982:14). Any complaints received by the public are reviewed and then listed in the Board's annual report. These laws and regulations also re-confirm the fact that media or news agencies in Australia play a positive role in shaping up public opinion or educating them about current happenings and updates. World wide survey's and researches have confirmed that media has a great impact on setting the public opinion on government's foreign policy than any other area. In the political arena of foreign policy, people have less first-hand experience with foreign policy issues than with domestic ones. Moreover, foreign issues tend to be less engaging and more complex to enter everyday communication between family, friends, neighbours, and co-workers10. People largely depend on media for getting news and information and thus media makes a significant contribution in creating a public awareness and educating people enabling them to participate and give their opinion on foreign policy related issues and debates. These two together cast a strong influence on government's foreign policy related issues. According to Pea11, it is likely that the media have the potential to influence the modification of the policies being conducted regarding the events covered. Therefore it becomes very important that news and facts presented by the media are authentic and not politically influenced or motivated. The news and facts play an important role in forming public opinion and ultimately affecting government's policies, and if such facts are cooked up, they can create havoc and have a very negative impact on the government's decision. But Australia's government even being open minded about accepting public and media opinion, makes sure that any news content reaching public is not influenced or politically motivated. This ensures that media is a reliable source of public information in Australia and together with public it plays a crucial role in influencing government's decision making process. A survey revealed that 89 percent of government policy makes agree that national and local media as well as the community play a key role in influencing their decisions. Out of total respondents, 36 percent agreed that local community and constituents are highly effective while other 33 percent said that media- both local and national are very influential and greatly affect the foreign policy decision making in the country. This clearly establishes the fact that engaging public and media can cast a great impact on Australia policy decision makers and help public in getting the desired outcome. Now let us see how the media and press works to create such a strong influence on government bodies and public in general It is evident that news and current affairs programmes are the main source of ratings in commercial television, with a constant emphasis being placed upon them to upstage their rival stations. It has been debated that perhaps 'the most obvious consequence of channel seven losing much of it's local identity, was due to the sharp decline in numbers watching it's 6pm news.... and Nine's A Current Affair is beating Today Tonight comfortably.' (Warneke, 2002:12) The average news programmes on the foreign policy issue is half an hour long. In a commercial half hour news programme 'six to seven minutes are subtracted for ads and station promotions, plus a couple of minutes for weather, and perhaps five minutes for sport, leaving about eighteen minutes for general news.' (Tiffen, 1989: 22-23) Due to this short time frame, those stories that make it to the newsroom are carefully sifted through by a 'copy-taster' who generally selects 'about ten per cent for further consideration.' (Mason & Lean, 1992:43)At the morning editorial conference there is a brief look at the previous day's news stories and the new stories. An agenda is then compiled by the senior editorial team, containing details such as which reporting staff are going where and details about logistical factors such as arrival times of satellite link-ups. Scripts then go to the senior editor on duty who checks use of language and grammar and pays particular attention to the formulation of issues, descriptions of people and organizations, and other matters of accuracy. Decisions are also made about which stories will be included in the trailers, advertising the upcoming bulletin. In the final hour before broadcast, many scripts for the newsreader have been written and tape editing done, apart from those stories which arrive late. "If (a story) came in at 4 o'clock, we'd just manage to get it into the 6pm news" (Cook, 2002:19) states Arnold, a chief cameraman at channel seven, Melbourne. This was before Channel seven, the first television station in the southern hemisphere, adopted a new non-linear technology in March. This new technology allows tapes to be 'ingested into a central server for anyone to access' enabling reporters to work on their stories on computer, and major stories such as a politician making a late speech, no longer need to be inserted into the end of the programme. Once editing is complete, the newsreader reads over the script, and the programme begins. In reference to the liberal theory of the press, a lot of what makes it to the news is determined upon what interests the public, and what is in the public's best interest. As the foreign policy is one the most interested topic in Australia, a large number of people take very much interest on these types of programmes. Also, such programs serves as an open platform for media, public, as well as the policy makers to bring their view in open and than give their opinion on the same. Infact, direct approach is considered as the most tools in influencing government's decision making polcies. The high level of support for open or direct approach also shows the openness and broadmindedness of the policy makers to public and media opinion in Australia. The policy makers in Australia strongly recommend that if a community or media has any issue that they want to address to the government in regards to any policy being implanted or already implemnted, they need not shy from coming out and giving their opinion. News, press, and media can be used to take up any issue or grievances. All what government expects is to be provided with reliable data and economic information supporting the fact or opinion. If media or people support their argument with facts and figures, they are most likely to convince government for a reform or a change. Gate-keeping and agenda setting are the main features of news production and these two factors are often dependant upon news values. During times of crisis, such as war, gates are set up to restrict or somewhat censor what the media can release.' During the Gulf war in 1991....what TV could show of the war, was granted by authorities." (Watson, 1998: 105-129) Gate-keeping also occurs in other circumstances, such as a government official refusing to make a comment, or a journalist being selective about the stories they submit. Agenda's in the news are another important factor upon determining newsworthiness. In general, 'What is of most importance to the public appears top of the media agenda'(Watson, 1998: 105-129) Differing ideologies or conflicting values may also determine an agenda, as well as the agendas of ownership and control. As well as gate-keeping and agenda setting, there are additional rules establishing news content. Proximity to, or familiarity of an event such as an earthquake will alter its newsworthiness. Magnitude or amplitude such as that of September 11 is another additional factor. When Hugh Grant was arrested for hiring a prostitute there were particular reasons as to why his story entered the news. 'The event is perfectly comprehensible in terms of cultural norms in our society' (Briggs & Cobley, 1998:18) so it was clearly, Grant's prominence or eliteness which made the public interested. Consequences are always forecasted prior to a story such as this being released in the media. 'It was debated whether the scandal might fit well with the public persona involved in the launch'. (Briggs & Cobley, 1998:18) After establishing the grounds on which content is decided and produced in news and current affairs programmes, one must understand the work practices, and explore additional factors such as ownership in order to understand why these particular stories made to the eye of the public. The media is, after all, an extremely influential factor in society. Is the media a political institution, in that it decides who gets what, when and how through formal organizations and procedures Or is it a business The radical theory suggests that 'the media generates content that garners the greatest profit' (Ranganathan, 2002) The liberal theory of the media suggests that it is not just what interests the public, but what is in the best interest of the public. The media's agenda is the public's agenda, in that what is of importance to the public, is of importance to the media. When there are competing interests however, the agenda's may be influenced by other factors such as ownership, power and control. Power is after all, 'potentially or actually part of all social relationships' (Ranganathan, 2002) If a proprietor has different interests, then the media's agenda changes. In the case of Channel Nine News and A Current Affair alike,' How much relates to the nature of commercial television competition, and how much to keep Kerry Packer's personal predispositions' (Cunningham & Turner, 2002:36) In relation to media policy-making, politicians' main two concerns are about the power of media content to impact on public opinion, and the extent of control over media content-especially news- by media owners. (Cunningham& Turner, 2002:40-41) This was traditionally a Labour view, however former leader Arthur Conwell, one of the greatest labour haters off the press, said of them 'What a press! It is owned for the most part by financial crooks and is edited for the most part by mental harlots'. (Cunningham& Turner, 2002:41) Politicians from all parties, in Australia and beyond, have never been slow to bring direct pressure on broadcasters. 'In the run-up to the 1997 General Election the conservatives announced the re-birth of their media-monitoring unit' (Briggs & Cobley, 1998:404) This was aimed to increase the sensitivity of the BBC in Britain to political pressure, by attacking it's coverage of the U.S.A's bombing in Libya. The extreme concentration and lack of diversity in the Australian media industry, is the ultimate reason behind such powerful private interests. Not just anyone can set up a television network to broadcast news, or similarly a newspaper, as 'The huge start up costs, the concentrated supply and distribution costs, the distribution of advertising revenue, all seem to lend themselves to oligopoly and away from the flexibility and openness cherished by free market theorists' (Cunningham & Turner, 2002:38) Cross media ownership laws in Australia do however limit ownership of multiple media forms, as 'the greater the play of market forces, the greater the 'freedom' of consumer choice.' (Golding & Murdock, 1991:15-32) The laws are one of the standards set and received by the Australian Broadcasting Association, and are crucial to the balance of players in Australia's media industries. The 'moguls' of the industry have their own beliefs and opinions about news content and the first famous critic of media performance, A.j. Leibling, captured this half a century ago. He implied that 'media content (was) very much a subject of their taste rather than of meeting consumer demand and market forces.' 12(Cunningham & Turner, 2002:42) Media proprietor's level of bias and influence is evident in Australia's history. Perhaps the most extreme form of proprietor-driven bias was Rupert Murdoch's vendetta against the federal Labour government in 1975. 'It provoked an unprecedented strike by News Limited journalists during the election campaign'13 (Cunningham & Turner, 2002:43) As a result, the Labour government lost but so did Murdoch. The strike ultimately affected his reputation, and his newspaper The Australian struggled. Despite there being considerable incentives to be sensitive to public demand, there are however, no ultimate punishments served for the act of propriertorial bias. In the past 5 years alone technology that was once a pipe dream has become a reality, greatly aiding journalism and society in its ability to transmit real time information from a breaking event on the other side of the world to the home or the parliamentary office. This frequency of news being transmitted from remote areas around the world has affected politics in several ways: primarily the use of new media technologies such as satellite, digital, and wireless technologies have enabled journalists instantaneous transmissions, giving politicians relevant, real-time information on developments in world affairs. However, the question of ethics is raised in such cases where politicians are relying on this timely information to stir outcry and shift public opinion14. (Neuman, J 1996: Online) Conclusion The broadcasting control board, although not a form of punishment, regulates what is deemed appropriate to be shown on television. The Board is charged under the Broadcasting and Television Act, to 'ensure that adequate and comprehensive programmes are provided by commercial television stations to serve the best interests of the general public, and to determine programme standards and standards subject to which advertisements may be broadcast and televised.' (Western, 1982:14) Any complaints received by the public are reviewed and then listed in the Board's annual report. It was revealed by the Board that during consultations with The Federation of Australian Commercial Television in August 1972, it 'drew attention to the fact that there had been an increase in the number of cases observed in which material had not been submitted for prior censorship...and acknowledged that there had been difficulties particularly in news and current affairs programmes' (Western, 1998:15) This matter has continued to be watched closely by the Board on behalf of the department. One particular incident of concern included footage of a detailed method of abortion taking place on A Current Affair in April 1973. This was considered extremely unsuitable for the programme's timeslot and family audience. (Western, 1998:14) These issues are taken a lot more seriously in today's programmes and they are always on the minds of those behind the scenes. "We're responsible about the images we show," stated John Sorell, channel nine news director, "We go on air at a family time and we make every bulletin balanced". (Dowsley, 2002:13) The news media is a highly influential and important agent in society. Thus, is it vital that the number one objective be to serve in the public's best interest. Through exploring the production techniques of such an industry, this becomes evident, however it is also clear that the industry is highly influenced by extreme amounts of proprietary bias, and their critical political economy. Despite this, the news media finds a successful balance and in doing so, continues to be the most relied upon industry in the media. References 1- Ranganathan, M. Media and communications Lecture, Monash University, Caulfield Campus. April 15th, 2002. 2- Reference not plagrisim. Retrieved on 5 June, 2007 from http://72.14.209.104/searchq=cache:tD4XwI6JtUcJ:www.p-p.com.au/PP_PoliticalSurvey5.pdf+influence+of+media+in+Australian+foreign+policy+decision-making&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=9&gl=in 3- Warneke.R, 2002 "Ratings: Melbourne's Top 10" in Green Guide Thursday May 2nd. 4-5-7-12-13 Cunningham, S. & Turner, G. (eds) 2002, The Media & Communications in Australia, Allen & Unwin, Sydney. 6- Briggs.A, Cobley.P, (eds) 1998, The Media: An Introduction, Addison Wesley Longman, New York. 8- Golding.P, & Murdock.G, "Culture, Communications, and Political Economy", in Curren.J, & Gurevitch.M, (eds) Mass Media and Society, Edward Arnold, London. 9- Western. S.J, 1982, Australian Mass Media, Australian Institution of Political Science, Victoria. 10- Reference not plagrisim. Retrieved on 5 June, 2007 from http://www.europe.canterbury.ac.nz/appp/media_analysis/ 11- Pea, Mnica, News media and the foreign policy decision-making process, CNN or Washington in Razn y Palabra, N 32, Abril - Mayo 2003 http://www.cem.itesm.mx/dacs/publicaciones/logos/anteriores/n32/mpena.htm 14- Neuman, J, 1996 The Medias Impact On International Affairs, Then and Now John Hopkins University Press, http://www.ceip.org/infostudygroup/neuman.html Briggs.A, Cobley.P, (eds) 1998, The Media: An Introduction, Addison Wesley Longman, New York. Collins Australian Dictionary, 1989, Harper Collins, Australia. Cook.M, 2002, "TV news revels in freedom to speed" in Green Guide, Thursday May 2nd. Cunningham, S. & Turner, G. (eds) 2002, The Media & Communications in Australia, Allen & Unwin, Sydney. Dowsley.A, 2002, "Making news all his life" in Progress Leader, Monday April 29th. Golding.P, & Murdock.G, "Culture, Communications, and Political Economy", in Curren.J, & Gurevitch.M, (eds) Mass Media and Society, Edward Arnold, London. Mason.M, McLean. K, 1992, Here Is The News, Collins Dove, Victoria. Ranganathan, M. Media and communications Lecture, Monash University, Caulfield Campus. April 15th, 2002. Tiffen. R,1989, News and Power, Allen & Unwin, Sydney. Warneke.R, 2002 "Ratings: Melbourne's Top 10" in Green Guide Thursday May 2nd. Warneke.R, 2002 "Seven on the ropes but not out for count" in Green Guide Thursday May 2nd. Western. S.J, 1982, Australian Mass Media, Australian Institution of Political Science, Victoria. Read More