Risks Assessment in a University Building - Case Study Example

Risk Assessment Name: Grade Course: Tutor’s Name: 25th, January, 2010 Abstract Risk assessment is the determination of the value of risks so that control measures can be taken to avoid losses of property and harm to human health. This paper is an analysis of risks found in a university building (Livesey House). Analysis has been carried out using risk analysis techniques such as event tree analysis, reliability study, risk ranking, cost benefit analysis, business continuity plan and utility. So many risks have been identified and their levels determined in the preliminary risk analysis. Detailed analysis is covered in the last section and gives the appropriate ways of dealing with different types of risks using specific examples. Introduction Risk assessment is the determination of the value of risks. The main reason for risk assessment is to be able to manage the risks and protect the people, protect property and also abide by the law. It is the careful examination of what can cause harm to the people and the organization so that precautions can be taken to prevent such harm from happening (HSE, 2010). Risks analysis helps in the development of a plan to control the risks. There are five steps in risk assessment. These are; Identification of the hazards Determination of who can be harmed Evaluation of the risks and determination of the precautionary measures Recording of the findings and implementation and Review of the assessment and updating whenever necessary (HSE, 2010). In this paper, a risk assessment has been done on a university building following the five steps above except for the last step. The building description is given below. It covers the identified hazards, those who might be harmed, a preliminary hazard analysis, risk ranking and analysis of the risks using event trees and other risk analysis techniques. 1. Description of the Place Livesey house is one of the main buildings for the University of Central Lancashire. It is three story building which has a number of classrooms, offices, and computer laps. All exit signs in the building are clearly seen and the exit routes are all the time free from any obstruction. This building is divided into two parts. The first part is three story building which has classes, offices and computer labs. The second part is just the ground floor and has a café and three classrooms only. The whole building is designed with a very narrow corridor with all the exit doors from various rooms all facing it. Each floor has a corridor in the same position as the other floors and acts as the only passage through to other rooms and outside. The number of students who enter this building is unknown, but each classroom can have 32 students. The corridor is too narrow to accommodate the population of the school. The floors of all the buildings have PVC tiles that are slippery. There is poor lighting system in all the floors and No emergency exits. There are three exits within the building. The exit to the left through the long corridor (Name it exit A), the exit that passes through the bathrooms to the ground floor (Name it exit B) and the exit in between two rooms in between rotating doors (Name it Exit C). Ground Floor The wall provided for support in the ground floor is inadequate, that is, the ground floor has no enough load bearing walls. This section only has the surrounding wall strong enough to hold any other building on top (load bearing wall). PVC toilets pipes are missing in the ground floor building. In case of servicing, walls have to be broken and another thing, a class may be disrupted causing inconveniences. (Livesey House: Ground floor) (Levesey House: 1st Floor). (Levesey House: 2nd Floor). (Levesey House: 3rd Floor). 2. Hazard List . Types Hazard Who might be harmed and how Risk ranking Control measures Further action Classroom Hazards Inadequate ventilation- In so many of the lecture halls, there are inadequate ventilation. The students, the staff and the lecturers L Provide adequate ventilation Before constructions, inspection should be done to ensure enough ventilation Stairs – dark stairs/ Inadequate lighting (in all the rooms as well) The students, the staff and the lecturers M Implement a lighting system that can provide enough light Inspection of the building design should be done to ensure there is enough and reliable lighting system Noise The students, and the lecturers M Make use of noise proof wall materials Analysis should be done to determine the appropriate materials for the lecture rooms depending on the building design Computer Laboratory Hazards Electrical routing of wires The students, the staff and the lecturers H Ensure that the wires are routed and that avoid the use of extension chords Regular inspection should be done to ensure wires are routed Insufficient Electrical outlets The students, the staff and the lecturers H Ensure sufficient outlets to work stations Regular inspection should be done to ensure there are enough outlets Office Hazards Poorly designed furniture, Slippery floors Poor lighting and Noise The staff and the lecturers H Ensure there are no obstructions from furniture or clear pathways for walking, Wear stable shoes with non-slip soles, ensure enough lighting system is developed and implemented and make use of noise proof wall materials Consider the space available in the office while looking for the furniture to place in the offices, avoid slippery floor materials whenever possible, inspection of the building design should be done to ensure there is enough and reliable lighting system and analysis should be done to determine the appropriate materials for the lecture rooms depending on the building design Ungrounded equipment The staff and the lecturers H Ground high voltage equipments as instructed by the manufacturers Regular inspection f the offices to ensure needed be grounded equipments are grounded Other Hazards Medical conditions of students, lectures or other university staff members The students, the staff and the lecturers H Ensure adequate ventilation Inspection should be done to ensure enough ventilation Slippery floors The students, the staff, any other visiting outsider and the lecturers E Put up warnings whenever there are Slippery floors and avoid using such materials when possible avoid slippery floor materials whenever possible, No emergency exits The students, the staff and the lecturers H Ensure Emergency doors are included in the building design Ensure the building design has emergency exit doors before implementation of the construction plan Insufficient space/ Overcrowding The students, the staff and the lecturers H Create enough space when designing the building Evaluate the building design to determine if spaces provided are adequate before implementation of the construction plan Rotating Doors The students, the staff and the lecturers H Create backup systems for safety purposes Ensure the backup systems are reliable 3. Risk Ranking For the level of risk to be determined, so many methods are used. In this analysis however, the basic formula of (likelihood × impact) of the hazard will be used. According to Relex publication, the analysis of risk is done by finding out the relationship between the probability of an event occurring and the severity of the effect of the event incase the event occurs, and then categorizing the relationship. This produces different levels of risk such as medium, low or high. Different colors can also be used to categorize the risks for example, red representing that relationship with the highest risk, blue representing the relationship with the next high risk followed by green, orange then purple being the color representing the relationship with the least risk. Severe high, elevated, guarded and low could also be used as well as descriptors such as severe risk, significant risk, high risk, general risk and low risk and so many others (Relex, 2010). The analysis of the risks is done using the formula likelihood × impact and is described below. 3.1 Qualitative Measure of Consequence Level Descriptor Detail Description 1 Insignificant No injuries (Both medical and physical) 2 Minor On site release immediately contained and First aid treatment 3 Moderate When it leads to the requirement of medical treatment, when outside assistance is needed to contain on-site release 4 Major When extensive injuries occur or extensive loss of property 5 Catastrophic That lead to death and very enormous loss of property (Courtesy of Safetyline Institute, 2005) 3.2 Qualitative Measures of Likelihood Level Descriptor Description A Almost Certain That event that is expected to occur under most circumstances B Likely When there is a probability that such a risk will occur or not in most circumstances. C Possible Might occur at sometime D Unlikely Could occur at some time E Rare This describes risks that can occur only under exceptional conditions or situations. (Courtesy of Safetyline Institute, 2005) 3.3 Qualitative Risk Analysis Likelihood Impact Insignificant Minor Moderate Major Catastrophic A. Almost Certain H H E E E B. Likely M H H E E C. Moderate M H E E D. Unlikely L L M H E E. Rare L L M H H L: Low risk; M: Moderate/Medium risk H: High risk E: Extreme risk (Courtesy of Safetyline Institute, 2005) A. Classroom Hazards i. Qualitative Measure of Classroom Hazard Consequences/Impacts Hazard Detail Description Descriptor Level Inadequate ventilation- In so many of the lecture halls, there are inadequate ventilation. On site release immediately contained and First aid treatment-This causes dizziness, headaches and fatigues and can be contained when ventilation is improved. Minor 2 Stairs – dark stairs/ Inadequate lighting (in all the rooms as well) Dar k stairs and inadequate lighting in rooms can lead to falls causing physical injuries of various degrees. It leads to the requirement of medical treatment in hospitals. Moderate 3 Noise Can be avoided when one is out of the buildings Minor 2 ii. Qualitative Measures of Classroom Hazards’ Likelihood Hazard Description Descriptor Level Inadequate ventilation- In so many of the lecture halls, there are inadequate ventilation. This could occur at some time if inadequate ventilation is not provided in all rooms Unlikely D Stairs – dark stairs/ Inadequate lighting (in all the rooms as well) This could occur at some time if inadequate lighting system is not provided in all rooms and the stairs Unlikely D Noise Might occur if the materials used for building the walls separating the lecture halls allow noise penetration Possible C B. Computer Laboratory Hazards i). Qualitative Measure of Laboratory Hazard Consequences/Impacts Hazard Detail Description Descriptor Level Electrical routing of wires Can cause death and serious injuries as well as huge loss of property Catastrophic 5 Insufficient Electrical outlets Can cause death and serious injuries as well as huge loss of property Catastrophic 5 ii). Qualitative Measures of Laboratory Hazards’ Likelihood Hazard Description Descriptor Level Electrical routing of wires The risks associated with this only occur under exceptional circumstances, that is, if electrical wires are not routed Rare E Insufficient Electrical outlets The risks associated with this only occur under exceptional circumstances, that is, if electrical outlets are not enough for available workstations Rare E C. Office Hazards i). Qualitative Measure of Office Hazard Consequences/Impacts Hazard Detail Description Descriptor Level Poorly designed furniture, Slippery floors Poor lighting and Noise Can cause physical injuries that need medical treatment, and can cause headaches, fatigues and dizziness that can be treated just by first aid. Moderate 3 Ungrounded equipment Can lead to death if an employee gets massive electric shock Catastrophic 5 ii). Qualitative Measures of Office Hazards’ Likelihood Hazard Description Descriptor Level Poorly designed furniture, Slippery floors Poor lighting and Noise There are chances that such risks can occur in most cases, for example buildings have slippery floors. The university floors are slippery. Likely B Ungrounded equipment Can only occur if there is an equipment with high voltage and is not grounded Rare E D. Other Hazards i). Qualitative Measure of Other Hazards’ Consequences/Impacts Hazard Detail Description Descriptor Level Medical conditions of students, lectures or other university staff members Can be contained at the site and first aid treatment given Minor 2 Slippery floors Can lead to falls causing physical injuries that require medical attention Moderate 3 No emergency exits Can lead to death whenever an emergency occurs and people find no way out. Catastrophic 5 Insufficient space/ Overcrowding Can lead to extensive injuries and loss of property in case of disasters Major 4 Rotating Doors They stand between the three existing exit doors and can lead to Injuries, and death in case of accidents like fires Catastrophic 5 ii). Qualitative Measures of Other Hazards’ Likelihood Hazard Description Descriptor Level Medical conditions of students, lectures or other university staff members Might occur sometime with poor ventilation Possible C Slippery floors Will occur under most circumstances Almost Certain A No emergency exits Only used under emergency situations Rare E Insufficient space/ Overcrowding Will occur under most circumstances but disasters do not occur at the same time Rare E Rotating Doors In most cases, there will be electricity blackouts but not a guarantee that these will be accompanied by emergencies. Only occur under emergency circumstances when disaster occurs Rare E 3.4 Qualitative Risk Analysis Risk Rank Inadequate ventilation- L Stairs – dark stairs/ Inadequate lighting (in all the rooms as well) M Ongoing lectures in different lecture halls separated by dry wall partitions M Electrical routing of wires H Insufficient Electrical outlets H Poorly designed furniture, Slippery floors Poor lighting and Noise H Ungrounded equipment H Medical conditions of students, lectures or other university staff members H Slippery floors E No emergency exits H Insufficient space/ Overcrowding H Rotating Doors H L: low risk; M: moderate/Medium risk H: high risk E: extreme risk 4. Preliminary Hazard Analysis (PHA) Preliminary hazard analysis is used to identify hazards related to the design at it early stages so that corrections can be made and a refined safe building designed. It involves identification of the hazards, determination of the sources of the conditions that cause the hazards, determination of the resulting effect of the hazards on the people, the equipment, operations and facilities and risk ranking (Preliminary Hazard Analysis, 2010). There are so many risks associated with the design of the building presented. The risks associated with the design are: There are inadequate ventilations in the lecture halls and in the toilets. Inadequate ventilation is a hazard and people may suffer from toxification from gases produced within rooms or labs that are not let to escape to the environment. The ground floor also has weak walls that may lead to the whole building collapsing if the walls in between are not strengthened. The dry wall partitions are not as strong as the load bearing wall for the rooms designed to be above it. There are no emergency doors and the corridor is the only source of exit from all the rooms in first floor, second floor and third floor. This can create overcrowding to the exits and to other classrooms. Students, lecturers and university staff members can collide along the corridors while moving in and out and to different rooms and sections like the toilet. Here are no adequate lighting systems in the building as well in most of the rooms and along the corridor. In the computer laboratories, there are no signs of electrical outlets and electrical routing of wires. Without electrical routing, there are high chances that there will be trip hazards which could cause a lot of damage both to the users of the lab and the whole university due to property damage. So many students will be using the computer laboratories and so there should be enough work stations. With no electrical outlets, there will be one source of electrical outlet which can cause property damage, overcrowding hence a lot of hazards. The hazards’ preliminary analysis is as follows: Ref. No. Source of Hazard Location of Hazard Triggers Possible Accident Consequences Warning Devices Contingencies Frequency Impact rank Comments A1 Inadequate ventilation- In almost all the lecture halls/classrooms, there is inadequate ventilation. Toilets Bathrooms Indoor air quality problem build-up of small amounts of contaminants Dizziness, fatigue and frequent headaches among the occupants of the building Alarms with high carbon dioxide level detectors Creating adequate ventilation system for the building and Improving ventilation rates Low Low There should be an appropriate ventilation system A2 Stairs – dark stairs/ Inadequate lighting (in all the rooms as well) Lecture halls/classrooms, stairs and the corridors Not seeing clearly Falls Physical injuries Including adequate lighting system for the building before it is complete Medium Medium The building should have adequate lighting system A3 Ongoing lectures in different lecture halls separated by dry wall partitions In between the classrooms Noise Noise Dizziness, fatigue and frequent headaches among the occupants of the building Use of appropriate structures for the walls in between High Medium Lecture halls should be separated by noise proof B1 Electrical routing of wires In the Laboratories trips Falls, electrical shocks, damage of property and may be fires Physical injuries, death and destruction of property Wiring should be routed to eliminate trip hazards and extension cords should not be used. Low High It is better to take precautionary measures by routing the wires than waiting for the incident to occur B2 Insufficient Electrical outlets In the Laboratories Overcrowding Electrical shocks, damage of property and in some instances fires Physical injuries, death and destruction of property Sufficient electrical outlets for all workstations Low High The laboratory should be designed to allow enough space for electrical system requirements C1 Poorly designed furniture, Slippery floors Poor lighting and Noise In the offices Trips, Slips, noise and striking against objects Falls Physical injuries, Dizziness, fatigue and frequent headaches among the occupants of the building and death. Ensure there are well designed furniture, Wear stable shoes with non-slip soles, ensure adequate lighting system and clear pathways for walking and Use of appropriate structures for the walls in between High High Consider the space available in the office while looking for the furniture to place in the offices, avoid slippery floor materials whenever possible, inspection of the building design should be done to ensure there is enough and reliable lighting system and analysis should be done to determine the appropriate materials for the lecture rooms depending on the building design C2 Ungrounded equipment In the offices Improper grounding of an electrical system Electric shock Injuries and death Grounding of the electrical system Low High Regular inspection of the offices to ensure needed be grounded equipments are grounded according to manufacturer’s instructions D1 Medical conditions of students, lectures or other university staff members Within the classrooms, offices, toilets and all rooms in the building with inadequate ventilation Indoor air quality problem build-up of small amounts of contaminants Dizziness, fatigue and frequent headaches among the occupants of the building Alarms with high carbon dioxide level detectors Creating adequate ventilation system for the building and Improving ventilation rates Low High There should be an appropriate ventilation system D2 Slippery floors The whole building (in several parts of the building, offices, classrooms and several others) Slippery soles and spills Making use of warning signs High Extreme avoid slippery floor materials whenever possible, D3 No emergency exits The whole building Fires and other accidents that can lead to quick evacuation from the building Bumping into each other, confusion during emergency and severe effects of the cause of the emergency Death, Injuries and loss of property Ensuring there are adequate emergency exits Low High Ensure the building design has emergency exit doors before implementation of the construction plan D4 Insufficient space/ Overcrowding In the corridor Individuals Bumping into people while walking , inadequate space during emergencies Injuries, death and destruction of property in case of accidents like fires Creating enough space for the corridors Medium High Evaluate the building design to determine if spaces provided are adequate before implementation of the construction plan D5 Rotating Doors The Corridors Electricity blackouts Being stuck in the Building with no exit Injuries, and death in case of accidents like fires alarms Creating enough exits in between the two rotating doors and having an electricity backup system Low High Ensure the backup systems are reliable 5. Event Tree Analysis This is a quantifying technique that identifies and quantifies the probable results of an event. Accidents occur in many ways and so many ways have been determined to prevent these accidents. Several barriers have therefore been put in place to ensure that whenever an accident for example an electric burst occurs, there is a way the people are alerted and a way to stop it from causing harm. A sub grade compartment system for example, is protected from uninterruptible power supply by a float switch which is closed by flooding, (a klaxon that sounds an alarm whenever there is uninterruptible power supply), switched on by the connection from the float switch, and a pump that pumps the water out to reduce its level and control the power supply. If the klaxon is sounded, it means there is flooding and the pump needs to be switched on for water levels to go down. The sub grade compartment also has a backup system where when the pump fails; the operators are forced to use manual bailing (Clemens, 1990). In such a case, an event tree will describe the dewatering system from the rising waters to the outcomes of the rising waters considering the functioning of the safety barriers or not (Rausand, 2005). Event trees analysis reveals all potential accident settings and series in a complex system. In the building analyzed for example, an event analysis can show all possible areas that accidents can occur and the sequence the accidents can take. The rotating doors for example, should have a safety barrier so that when there is electricity blackout, there is a backup system and people can still pass through them. If the rotating doors are provided with a safety barrier, the doors would have an electric switch which goes on when there is power black-out. This switch is connected to the alarm system alerting the operators of the problem or black-out. This should trigger the functioning of the back-up system which can be a generator or a different source of power supply. The doors can then continue to function normally. Event Tree Electric Power Blackout leads to electric switch functioning and triggering the functioning of the 1st backup plan. If the electric switch succeeds, the other backup system is switched on. If the electric switch fails the other power backup fails and another safety barrier is used for example the use of other exits in between the rotating doors (Stairs). 6. Maths Analysis of the event Tree Event trees quantify the probable outcomes of an event. Total probability =1. If one outcome is a success, the probability of failure is 1-Probability of success. This gives the formula below. P Success +P Failure= 1 PS= 1-PF PF= 1-PS Probability of success therefore of the above event tree is given by the total probability of all successes found in the tree. Probability of failure is also given by the total probabilities of all failures in the event tree. 7. Reliability One of the steps in ensuring safety is determination of how reliable a system is so that hazards are reduced. Reliability means the system can be relied on to work effectively especially systems meant to reduce chances of hazard occurrence or whose failure can cause a lot of property damage and health harm (Reliability Lecture Notes, 2010). There is redundancy that helps in reducing risks, there is majority voting system and there is stand by systems. All these three are essential reliability systems that help reduce risks among others. In reducing fire risks for example, designers of buildings would ensure there are several fire safety systems and that the systems are reliable. Reliability is more when there are many components under a parallel connection and very little when there are more components in a series connection (Redundancy) (Reliability Lecture Notes, 2010). When safety barriers are placed in a system and are connected in a series manner, one mistake leads to the malfunction of the whole system. Parallel connection however, allows other safety barriers or parts of the safety barriers to still function hence efficiency in reducing risks (Reliability Lecture Notes, 2010). There should be back up systems if a system’s failure can cause great losses or serious injuries. The backup systems are connected in parallel so that if one fails, the other can still function efficiently. With this, reliability is high (Reliability Lecture Notes, 2010). In the building for example, the rotating doors electric system should have backup systems connected parallel to each other. If one electric system fails, the other should be able to function. Other backup systems can also be added to increase reliability when the value of the average reliability desired has not been achieved. This can be done through majority voting systems (Reliability Lecture Notes, 2010). Majority voting systems is to increase reliability. When three systems connected in a parallel manner can only produce a reliability of 0.85, yet the desired reliability is 0.95, a different system with different reliability values that match the required reliability should be implemented. In the case of the building for example, the appropriate reliability of the safety barriers that will ensure lowest risk level is experienced should be implemented. Like described in the event tree, there are two backup/stand by systems. Each has its own level of reliability. All of them combined provide the level of reliability that ensures safety in the building. Reliability of backup system 1 (Alternative power source) plus the reliability of the 2nd backup system when the real source of power malfunctions is enough to provide safety in the building hence reduces the risks of hazard occurrence due to electricity blackout (Reliability Lecture Notes, 2010). 8. Worst Case Disaster BCP (Business Continuity Plan) Business continuity plan is that which helps the organization recover or continue with business after unseen events occur (Doughty, 2000). The plan contains the procedures and processes that will be used to ensure that the organization’s business cycle resumes in an orderly manner at the right time without disruptions to the service operations or with minimal disruptions to service operations and time-sensitive business. This plan also helps reduce losses as well as ensures health and safety of al personnel (Doughty, 2000). In the university building provided, it would be necessary for the managers to have a business continuity plan that will help it continue its operations in an orderly manner in case a disaster occurs. There are so many facilities within the university that can be damaged leading to loss of property and there are so many lives that can be lost. The plan for example, can have emergency actions necessary to save lives in case of a disaster. This will save the university’s skilled labor and the students making it easier for it to move on after the disaster. 9. Insurance Insurance can be included as one way to ensure the business continues but it is also an important consideration in risk analysis. When institutions experience losses due to risks it is not always easy to recover. It is important for an organization to get relevant insurance for business continuity purposes and to reduce losses. This is an action that helps after a disastrous even has occurred. There are different types of insurances and organizations get to choose which is appropriate. The university for example can insure the lives of the staff and can also insure the university’s property (Insurance Lecture Notes, 2010). 10. CBA (Cost Benefit Analysis) Cost Benefit Analysis determines the money value of the benefits and the cost of projects in an organization or a community to find out if the projects are valuable or meaningful (Nas, 1996). In most cases, the value of the project is done using money as the standard unit. If for example an organization invests in a project that protects the people and the property of the organization from fire, the value of the project can be measured by comparing the cost of investing in that project and the benefits of that project. If the cost outweighs the benefits, then it is not wise to invest in that project, while if the benefits outweigh the costs then that project is considered meaningful. Avoiding the risk and waiting for an event to occur then taking action later can also be analyzed using the cost benefit analysis. Most organizations and institutions are prone to disasters that result from natural causes and man-made causes. If there are safety barriers already developed that can help the organizations reduce the risks, cost benefit analysis can be done to determine the value of taking precautions by implementing some safety barrier measures, which means implementing certain projects and the value of not taking such precautions at all. This helps the organizations in decision making. Saving lives and property is economically valuable. The skills that people have are an investment and an investment in hand is better than an investment to be done in the future. Just like one dollar in hand is more valuable than one dollar in the future. Additionally, avoiding loss of property is saving what the community or organization has invested in, making it an investment in hand. This analysis applies to Livesy house as a university building. There are so many resources that the community risks losing if precautionary measures are not taken on the risks that can lead to dangerous hazards. A cost benefit analysis should be done to determine the benefit of implementing precautionary measures projects to the university and the community in relation to the cost of implementing them. The benefits of implementing the systems must outweigh the costs involved in maintaining and also of installation of the systems (Nas, 1996). 11. Utility Utility is like making a preference based on the values provided. An individual can be provided with two investment options, one with high return on investment but with a lot of risks and the other with a slightly lower return on investment but with very low risks. The individual will decide on one investment based on his/her preferences/satisfaction. If the individual is a risk taker, then he/she will go for the high return on investment while if the individual is a risk avoider, he/she will go for the investment with a low return on investment (Utility Lecture Notes, 2010). Utility is only achieved after analysis. The cost benefit analysis provides the values that can be used for decision making on which project to take or not depending on the preferences of an organization. A project might have higher benefits than the other but does not satisfy the requirements of the organization. Utility changes the uncertainty of a situation hence crates awareness for investments (Utility Lecture Notes, 2010). 12. Conclusion Risk assessment involves identification of the risks and finding out ways of controlling them. Without identification of the control methods or procedures/measures, risk analysis would be useless. In this paper, Livesey house risk assessment has been done. The risks have been identified and control measures given. The analysis has covered a preliminary risk analysis and a detailed risk analysis. Not all the risks have been covered in this analysis but detailed risk analysis has given the levels of the risks identified indicating the severity of the hazards. If no action is taken, a lot of property and lives can be lost as described in the analysis which has included qualitative analysis. 13. References Clemens, P. L., (1990), Event Tree Analysis, 2nd Ed., Retrieved on 22nd January, 2010 from: http://www.fault-tree.net/papers/clemens-event-tree.pdf. Doughty, K., (2000), Business Continuity Planning: Protecting Your Organization's Life, Massachusetts: CRC Press. HSE, (2010), Five Steps to Risk Assessment, The Health and Safety Executive. Insurance Lecture Notes, (2010), Insurance, pp.1-5. Nas, T. F., (1996), Cost-Benefit Analysis: Theory and Application, SAGE Preliminary Hazard Analysis, (2010), Preliminary Hazard Analysis (PHA) Packet, Retrieved on 22nd January 2010 from: Packethttp://www.mech.utah.edu/ergo/pages/Educational/safety_modules/Pha/PHA_ns.pdf. Rausand, M., (2005), System Reliability Theory: System Analysis Event Tree Analysis, 2nd Ed., New York, US: Wiley. Safetyline Institute, (2005), Identify Hazards And Assess OHS Risks: Sample Risk Ranking Tools, Retrieved on 20th, January 2010 from: http://bizline.docep.wa.gov.au/safetyline/media/Element_4_403_Sample.pdf. Relex, (2010), Reliability Methodologies for Quantifying Risk, Reliability Articles. Reliability Lecture Notes, (2010), Systems Reliability, pp. 1-6. Utility Lecture Notes, (2010), Utility, pp1-12. Read More