Human Factors, Cognitive Psychology and Computer Interface - Coursework Example

Human Factors, Cognitive Psychology and Computer Interface Human Factors, Cognitive Psychology and Computer Interface Introduction Human beings are the most resourceful facets of firms, organizations or institutions. They perform both physical and cognitive tasks to make products or provide services. The physical tasks entail assembling and handling different materials while cognitive involves using tools, inspection of components, managing or making data, and managing operations as well as people. Ergonomics as a synonym for human factors deals with the study of human at work (MacKenzie, 2012). Understanding of the role of human factors in systems and industries is increasing since these factors in design improve not only efficiency but also reduce the cost on remedial activities (Cai, 2005). They aid in comprehending performance and human errors especially in highly automated systems (Skjerve & Bye, 2011). The name ergonomics is associated with a group of professionals (whose tasks entailed human performance) in 1946 who gathered at Oxford to deliberate on human performance. However, the name was later changed to human factors in the US. Human performance is associated with leaning, differences between individuals, motivation, task and environment. Thus, human factor is a science discipline that encompasses human interaction with systems (Mourlas, Tsianos & Germanakos, 2009). It also involves the application of principles, theories, data, and design methods with the aim of maximizing the well-being of humans and systems (Rogers, Sharp, & Preece, 2011). There are four main areas where the interaction between human and technology system (computer) can be investigated. The first is the physical ergonomics which seeks to investigate physical posture of people while working or handling particular tasks (Salvendy, 2012).In addition, it is also associated with problems such as fatigue that emanate from physical efforts. Second is the cognitive ergonomic which involves cognitive aspects at work. It tries to give solutions to problems such as the distributions of attention, decision making, use of human computer interface, errors committed by humans at work, techno-stress among other cognitive aspects. Neuroergonomic is the third domain. It involves neurophysiologic techniques such as the brain imaging method. In most cases it is used to evaluate customers. The final domain is the social or organizational ergonomics which deals with the technical aspects of the social system (Rogers, Sharp, & Preece, 2011). The applications of the ergonomic concept are broadly categorized into two, which are, the industrial areas and the intervention areas. The industrial application areas can be divided into the human computer interaction (HCI), transportation and control process while the intervention area incorporates design, technological innovation, and safety and accident investigation (Graimann, 2010). Human Computer Interaction (HCI) This decade has been characterized by accelerating increasing in computing activities. The basic computing skills in the contemporary society are almost becoming an essential requirement (Salvendy, 2012). Perhaps, this phenomenon can be associated with the evolution of the computing devices. In the eighties, individuals relied on the use of office desk as the widely known computing device. It’s a practice that has dramatically changed as numerous upgraded devices are frequently being launched by competing companies. In addition, design in HCI has had a significant influence in areas such as human factors and psychology, software development and engineering, and computer graphics. Application of human factors principle was precipitated by the complex nature of equipment that was beyond the limit of human operation capabilities (Carroll, 2014). Human performance information is embedded into a design called user interface in the psychology of human computer interaction (Lazar, Feng & Hochheiser 2010). The sources of the user interface are the empirical data concerning performance and performance theory (s) and observation as well as analysis of the system (HCI). The data can either be collected through psychology (most cases laboratory and knowledge base work) or applied by congregation of the human factor design challenges (Rogers, Sharp, & Preece, 2011). RT (2014) elaborates on a new technology being developed by Tufts University scientists on how to back up human brains with computer. The technology will have the ability of scanning the brain to determine if an individual is mentally aware to carry out tasks in question, bored or tired with the work the individual is doing (RT, 2014). Information Access Cost (IAC) Designing human computer interface that allows users to large amount of information has proved to be challenging. However, the interface structure can be designed to adapt to the cognitive and behavioral nature by making some changes in the IAC which can affect performance. To achieve the above, physical, time and mental cost of accessing information should be highly minimized (Michael & Mark, 2010). IAC encourages large amount of memory processing techniques which in turn improves both the future memory for information as well as learning geared towards planning and finding solutions to problems (Phillip, John &Leyanne, 2013). History and contemporary movements within areas of human factors Human Computer interaction surfaced in the eighties. Those who interacted with the computer were countable. They were mainly professionals and those who had hobby in using them. Fortunately, the arrival of personal computers dramatically changed this phenomenon. Through the various softwares and computer platforms, everybody became a potential user in reference to personal computing. Consequently, cognitive science began developing. Cognitive science was to address the informed systematic and scientific applications (Carroll, 2014). Later it was known as cognitive engineering. Human factors come up with task analytical methods of analysing the interaction between human and system in areas of aviation as well as manufacturing and were moving towards addressing interactive systems where human operators had found problematic. Cognitive approach in reading, writing and media where users are tested developed. In the seventies there was software crisis. Software engineers focused on nonfunctional materials such as usability and incorporating maintenance (Carroll, 2014). The period was also characterized by computer graphics. Following robust activities in the development of human computer interaction, the need to empower and better the understanding of users the concepts of computer science emerged. The concept of usability was perceived to be easy to use and learn. Its sole purpose was to enhance computer science development widely and wildly. Users have huge appetite for more from the system rather than the easier to use idea in the contemporary movement. Computer science was the rock that originally held HCI where the initial focus was in productive application such as editing of text and spreadsheets. However, it rapidly expanded into other areas of design such as information technology, psychology, information science, cognitive science, and system engineering among other numerous fields. Due to this growth, HCI has grown diversely beyond just computer science. It has expanded from its focus on persons and user behavior to the widest sphere of human experiences alongside activities. Initially human computer interaction was office based application. Today the concept is so wide that its applications have sky rocketed to the stratosphere (Carroll, 2014). All fields such as commerce, health and medical centers, education system, games among numerous fields illustrate the above vindications. Besides, it has also expanded techniques of interaction and devices (handheld devices as an example). Academic program training of HCI (the contemporary society) involve different groups of professional designers such as application, user experience, interaction, telecommunication among other disciplines. In additions, there are different facets of HCI such as mobile computing, community informatics et cetera and it has become a name for different communities (Graimann, 2010). These changes in HCI have been precipitated by the evolving concept of usability and commitments that value human activities alongside experience as the sole driver of technological strides (Raja, Thomas &Christopher, 2008). As reiterated earlier, initially HCI was primarily for personal productivity interaction through the use of desktop which entailed the use of word processing and spreadsheets to accomplish tasks (Zaphiris & Kurniawan, 2007). It really consumed people’s imagination as the climate of the designs not only challenged but threatened work practice of employees in the offices. However, the introduction of operation systems such as the unix made interaction easy as tasks were completed by typing commands (Carroll, 2014). Interestingly, the development of HCI has heightened to the extent where children these on daily basis. The movement beyond desktop was categorized into three distinct areas despite the fact that its use had become so limiting to satisfy the increasing needs. Professionals in the nineties realized the importance of search in comparison to finding things at the desktop user interface (Zhang, et al 2012). Besides, there was the growing influence on the use of the internet to compute in the society. Electronic mails became the vital HCI application as computers became channels of communications. Other preceding applications to emails were wikis, instant messaging, wikis, and blogs among others (MacKenzie, 2012). In the current decade of HCI, social computing has expanded to the unimaginable levels (the emergence of social media sites such as face book, Whats App, webcams, Skype et cetera illustrate) and it is still developing. Furthermore, the movement beyond desktop has been characterized by the emergence of diversified different types of computing devices. Laptops surfaced in the early eighties alongside other handheld devices. Its implication is that computing concepts have been embedded into the human habits both at home and work place (cars and various appliances) (Graimann, 2010). Theories and models Conceptual topics Attention and situation awareness Perceiving and understanding situations consciously is referred to as situation awareness. Situation awareness entails perception of things in an environment, comprehension of the current situation and forecasting the development of these situations in the future. The increasing interest in the situation awareness is accrued to human performance instability since the work process is being automated. Situation awareness and attention is important in the control of performance of any task (Robert, 2010). Mental models Mental models are important in the acquisition of skills that are helpful in dealing with physical systems. The model has been used widely in computational analysis to predict comprehension of instructions that elaborate on how to deal with a technical system. An individual interacting with computer in HCI needs to understand it structure and operations (Graimann, 2010). Learning with or about artefacts Learning encompasses three scenarios. It can be learning by accretion which involves learning in o formal academic set up or learning by tuning which involves adapting in situations of actions in a manner that improves performance (Shobha et al (2010). Furthermore, learning can be through restructuring where learning due to changes in the environment or system one is subjected to (MacKenzie, 2012). Decision making Decision making especially in pressurizing conditions and time is one of the critical human factor considered by ergonomists. The endpoints of decision making are usually weighed in the scale of alternatives available to conditions that require decision making (Robert, 2010). Organizational process In organization psychology decision making in groups alongside leadership of the organization as well as the related issue to the decision made is very important. It is vital because knowledge management plays a role in the social technical systems (Salvendy, 2012). Mental stress and workload Humans indulge in numerous activities that entail applications of cognitive skills. More often than not (especially demanding activities), they are usually bombarded with a lot of work that lead to fatigue (Raja, Thomas &Christopher, 2008). Since handling tasks involves incorporation of cognitive awareness, it consequently leads to mental workload and fatigue or stress. Techno-stress as one of the major consequences has for quite some time proved futile to remedy (Harris, 2012). The advancement of technology at an acceleration pace coupled with complexities of these technologies are some of the causative factors (Raja, Thomas &Christopher, 2008). In addition, technology especially in computer has led to the fear of employees either being replaced with other persons more conversant with technology or not performing to the desired levels (Kerm et al, 2008). Methodologies The methods used in ergonomics (human factors) explain and foretell the resultant implications of decisions made in the design of socio technical systems. They are applied either before or after the change has been introduced in a system (Robert, 2010). If they are applied before a change is introduced in a system then they explain and forecast on possible consequences. On the other hand, when they are applied after, they try to weigh in the consequences by evaluating how effective the change is to the interaction with the system (Harris, 2012). These methods are ethnographic and field study methods, standard and evaluation testing, simulation, and experiments (Salvendy, 2012). Ethnographic and field study methods are usually applied in conditions that are completely unknown. The researcher is compelled to keenly observe the environment immersed in and make observations. It replaced the survey techniques such as interviews and questionnaire (Zheng, Hill & Gardner, 2013). Assumptions are not the driving factors while on the other hand, field study observations are made and descriptions illuminated without the situations being interfered with. Moreover, observations are made from assumptions that are established from the initial stages (MacKenzie, 2012). As for standard and evaluations, tasks are grouped into different standards of situations. One of these standards is the International Standard Organization (ISO) which is the top most hierarchy in the nationals, industrial and international bodies that control human interaction and work that entail artefacts. The experiment technique involves designing system using several alternative designs which are usually labeled as the hypothesis of the experiments (Harris, 2012). To properly evaluate these experiments; control experiments are designed in the field of psychology and majority of nature sciences. Despite numerous challenge of the experimental method, there is no better method that achieves desired results on tasks that synchronize scientific human factors with ergonomic research (MacKenzie, 2012). Finally, the simulation method is an avenue to conduct experiments aimed at avoiding the validity of the ecology. It’s either in form of training, entertainment, or designed experiments. In simulation of human beings, the aim is often to predict the behavior of individuals and how they function when confronted with dire situations (Kerm et al, 2008). Advantage of computer interface in accessibility of information There are a number of advantages of designing computer interfaces to allow immediate and largely unrestricted access to information to human performance in workplace settings. The cognitive abilities illuminate that through the interaction learning experience of situations on the systems is likely to increase (MacKenzie, 2012). Access to information at work place increases an individual employees knowledge based structure of information. Besides, the rapid increase in computing activities as well as evolution of numerous computing devices has been embraced in not only at workplace but also in the social organization system (Uttal, 2006). Knowledge of these computing techniques can be an avenue of reducing stress at work place. Stress in this case is in reference to mental workload, fatigue and techno-stress. Workers who are up to date in these computing techniques are likely to perform better than those who are not (Kerm et al, 2008). Philip et al (2009) conducted an experiment to investigate how increasing IAC can protect interruption effect while solving problems. The method used was lagging of interruptions after which solution to the problem would proceed (Samuel, et al 2007). The outcome of the experiment conducted indicated that indeed higher access to information limits constraints related to interruptions (Phillip, et al 2009). Conclusion Humans perform both physical and cognitive tasks in organizations or work place. These have been essential elements of production of goods and services to respective customers. The physical and cognitive tasks are essential parts in the examination of human factor both at work place and other situations. The concepts, theories, models, and principles of human factors are synonymous with ergonomics (Horsky, J et al (2012).Incorporation of human factors in the human computer interaction (HCI) in the design of the psychology of HCI has significantly been transformed. In addition, there has been tremendous movement in the history and in the contemporary society. In reference to computer science, history narrates movement and evolution of desktops from performance of tasks such as editing word processors and spreadsheets to multivariate tasks such as the use of graphics. Moreover, usability of these systems has evolved. Reference List Carroll, J.M. (2014): Human Computer Interaction - brief intro. In: Soegaard, Mads and Dam, Rikke Friis (eds.). "The Encyclopedia of Human-Computer Interaction, 2nd Ed.". Aarhus, Denmark: The Interaction Design Foundation. 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