Motivational Theories and Their Critical Role for Employees - Research Paper Example

Motivational Theories and Their Critical Role In Eliciting Discretionary Effort from Employees Introduction Organizational excellence begins with the performance of people. It is what people do or do not do that ultimately determines what the organization can or cannot become. It is their dedication and commitment to organizational purposes that make the difference. Whether organizational goals can be achieved will depend on the willingness of people to make the necessary contributions. It is the performance of people that is the true benchmark of organizational performance. One of the most exciting and challenging theories encompassing human behavior in organizations is motivation. Motivation is the intrinsic inducement that propels an individual to behave in specific ways. There have been a significant number of literatures covering the nature, theories and applications of motivation and its effect to job performance and satisfaction. Various scholars on human resources revealed diverse theories on motivation over time. In this regard, this essay is written to explain analytically, how motivation theories could help managers elicit ‘discretionary effort’ from employees. The response would be illustrated with suitable examples of Human Resources practices. The Nature of Motivation Motivation energizes behavior and gives it direction. A motivated person will work harder and persevere longer than an unmotivated one. The level of intensity and persistence for the motivated person will be higher. A motivated athlete will endure lone hours of practice daily than one who is not. Yet, motivation also directs behavior. A hungry man is motivated to seek food and to eat. In this sense, motivation is like a vector quantity in physics. It has both magnitude and direction. Almost all human behavior is motivated, that is, caused, as well as directed. People act because something caused it. But their actions will not be aimless. There must be a direction. Motivation is the strength of the drive toward an action. Motivation refers to a whole class of drives, needs, and similar forces that prompt a person to act in a certain way or to develop a tendency for specific behavior. To enable one to proffer how motivation theories help managers elicit ‘discretionary effort’ from employees, it is essential to briefly define what discretionary effort means. According to Business Dictionary, discretionary effort is the “difference in the level of effort one is capable of bringing to an activity or a task, and the effort required only to get by or make do.” Broadly speaking, when a manager motivates his subordinates, it means that he structures the work environment in such a way that their drives and needs are brought into play, instead of being neglected. This environment should be conducive to the satisfaction of those drives and needs so that workers may act in desired ways. A Basic Motivation Model Internal needs and drives produce some imbalance in the individual’s internal state. The imbalance creates tension and discomfort in the person. For instance, the need for food produces discomfort in the form of hunger. He identifies goals and then takes some kind of effort to fulfill his goals. He examines the external environment to determine alternative foods which will relieve his hunger. He may then decide to drive to a fast-food restaurant or go home to eat. The action, if successful, produces need satisfaction and current behavior is ended. The individual then turns his attention to some other activity. Otherwise, there is need frustration. The individual may continue to engage in other actions until a particular need is satisfied. According to Martires & Fule (2004, 4), “the motivational model can be seen as a chain and the various elements therein as links. Needs create tension which stimulates effort to perform. Rewards are received remunerations that bring about satisfaction.” Needs satisfaction completes the chain and provides a feedback mechanism that controls both the intensity and direction of behavior. Motivational Theories One of the most famous theories was Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs who averred that man’s needs fall into a hierarchy of relative prepotency. A need ceases to be potent when it is met and man strives to satisfy the next rung of needs – from physiological, safety and security, social, esteem and self-actualization. (Maslow 1970). People have a variety of needs; and needs manifest themselves in many forms. Abraham H. Maslow placed human needs in a hierarchy of relative prepotency. This scheme is used by managers depending on diverse factors affecting needs satisfaction. The need hierarchies can differ between cultures and indeed among individuals within the same culture should not be overlooked by a manager. As averred by Martires & Fule (2004, 9), “in the Philippines, amor propio is a concept that is closely related to self-esteem. It reflects a desire to be treated with dignity and respect.” Central to amor propio is a Filipino’s desire to be treated as a human being rather than as an object or a mere tool. This desire is so strong and primary that for many Filipinos, it may rank in the same order as the physiological needs in Maslow’s hierarchy. Similarly in Japan, the sense of belonging is very strong. This is manifested in an important way by the individual’s overriding commitment and loyalty to his group. It also underpins the relationship between the employer and the employee. According to Lebra (1981, 24), “the Japanese employee tends to find his identity in belongingness rather than in the cultivation and exhibition of professional expertise. The employer, for his part, is more interested in recruiting a novice who may have no special skill but enough aptitude and motivation to learn a skill after being employed than he is in finding an established expert who could immediately improve productivity. Employment seems to mean, above all, the teaching and learning of the employee’s role in relation to the employer and other senior employees, with emphasis upon loyalty and group identification.” In this regard, managers must understand that motivation is situational. Both individual and cultural differences are contingent factors in motivation that managers should pay attention to. The value of Maslow’s theory to the manager, whether he is an American, Filipino, Japanese or German executive and whenever he or she manages people, lies in the insight that the concept of marginal utility applies also to human needs. Human needs are not absolute. The more one need is satisfied, the less it satisfaction matters. As the need for economic rewards becomes satisfied, it becomes less satisfying to obtain more of the same. This implies that at some point, the provision of additional rewards for the satisfaction of one particular need, regardless of hierarchical configuration, may no longer bring about corresponding increases in productivity. Thus, for individuals who are already receiving substantial financial rewards, an increase in pay may no longer be motivating. What they may need are challenging work, growth, responsibility, and/or autonomy, among others. Frederick Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory suggests that the factors involved in producing job satisfaction are separate and distinct from those that lead to job dissatisfaction. (Herzberg, 1996, 226) It had been thought that satisfaction and dissatisfaction were opposites of only one set of factors. Herzberg found that two sets of factors were involved instead. That means that the opposite of job satisfaction is not job dissatisfaction, but, rather no job satisfaction. Likewise, the opposite of job dissatisfaction is not job satisfaction, but no job dissatisfaction. The presence of motivators leads to high levels of satisfaction, but their absence puts workers only to a neutral state. Looking at the hygiene factors (job context, extrinsic factors and dissatisfiers); on the other hand, their absence leads workers to high levels of dissatisfaction while their presence generally brings employees only to a neutral state. For example, employers should ensure that their organizations have clear and explicitly stated company policies and procedures. The absence of this would lead to chaos and dissatisfaction due to the conflicts that are possible to arise. On the other hand, the presence of company policies are not seen as motivators since they are assumed to be pertinent to the organization – and thereby; only brings the employees to a neutral state. From a managerial standpoint, the distinction between hygiene and motivation factors is a significant one. Thus, managers should focus their attention on hygiene factors if they aim to prevent dissatisfaction. However, if they want to motivate employees, they should concentrate instead on the motivator (job content, intrinsic factors and satisfiers). Managers must thereby use recognition, achievement, responsibility, advancement and growth as motivational factors to improve the level of discretionary effort. The employees would intrinsically be prompted to increase their production and efficiency when they are duly recognized and given higher levels of promotion for jobs well done. To motivate employees, managers can use job enrichment techniques. It means making the job challenging and meaningful. As Herzberg (1981, 226) enumerated, the following techniques can assist managers in motivating employees to elicit discretionary efforts: By removing some controls while retaining accountability, managers must motivate their employees through responsibility and personal advancement. By increasing the accountability of the individuals for their own work, managers should give responsibility and recognition. Giving a person a complete nature unit of work entails responsibility, achievement and recognition. Introducing new and more difficult tasks not previously handled by employees is tantamount to growth and learning. Finally, by assigning workers specific or specialized tasks which enable them to become experts on their field or line of process entails responsibility, growth and advancement. (Herzberg (1981, 226) David McClelland (1975) postulated with his achievement motivation theory that people with high need to achieve do achieve more than those with low need and with no need at all. With this high task-low relationships behavior, people may frustrate and prohibit other staff from maximizing their own potentials. Thus, McClelland avers that achievement-oriented individuals do not always make the best managers. Managers with high achievement needs tend to manifest these traits as entrepreneurs. The goal to venture into new business energizes them and drives them to conquer unexplored business endeavors. Entrepreneurs are a distinct breed of businessmen who thrive and excel in a highly competitive environment. In so far as motivational aspects are concerned, the following factors have been observed to drive them: personal and financial rewards, their entrepreneurial vision, and the “common characteristics important for motivation: commitment, perseverance, achievement, drive, and opportunity orientation” (Successful Entrepreneur, undated). Around the world, the area of worker motivation is replete with research studies. In the Philippines, this aspect has likewise been dealt with. A 1990 study by a group of students in the subject of Personnel Management in the University of the Philippines, College of Business Administration showed that money motivates secondary school educators in both public and private institutions. It is perceived to be a means to survive and to be a source of security. While there are more private school teachers who indicate a willingness to transfer to other institutions offering higher pay, the public school teachers prefer to stay in their present organizations. Respondents from the private schools show dissatisfaction with their salary while those from the public schools show general satisfaction. The latter group is older and has stayed in their schools longer than the former group. Most of the private school teachers have held other jobs aside from teaching, while a negligible percentage of their counterpart in the public schools have had any. Teachers are mostly women who consider teaching and having a family a convenient and comfortable situation. (Padua, 1991) A very significant factor in the efficient performance and retention of workers is their motivation and strength. Management should be aware of and recognize people’s motives in order to guide, lead and direct them appropriately. The dynamics of behavior is indeed a very challenging area to unravel and, if properly handled, assists in morale building and development among employees and which, in turn, results in job satisfaction and high productivity. A study was conducted in Restorāns "Monterosso" at Riga, Latvia. Restorāns "Monterosso" was founded in the early 20th century. The interior is beautifully arranged and designed. It exemplifies the restaurant for the upscale crowd with delicious and intricately crafted a la carte menu. The price is on the more expensive scale appropriately matching the sophisticated aura. It is under the helm of “world renowned chef Patrick Pages. Patrick is a rarity – he is a French chef who understands the fundamentals, essentials, and desirable taste of Italian food. Several years that he spent in Italy made him a true connoisseur of Mediterranian cuisine.” (Monterosso, 2007, 2) It is extremely difficult to study the motivational process at Monterosso since one can only examine the outcome of motivation, through the behavior of its personnel. This activity leading to behavior is largely internal to the person. Hence, a variety of theories have evolved to explain the motivational process. Both theories of Maslow and McClelland apply at Monterosso. There are fewer opportunities for interpersonal relationships as the high task position is centered on the head chef. Further, when waiters and assistant chefs have achieved their physiological and safety and security needs, they tend to transfer to other restaurants or employers who offer benefits that could eventually satisfy social, esteem and eventually, self-actualization needs. The staff at Monterosso appears to be generally dissatisfied with how management applies motivational theories. The restaurant caters to the high end market. Although the prices are expensive, the restaurant does not earn so much limiting the incentives available to the staff. According to a waiter, there are no incentives for exemplary work. As such, waiters have still got much to learn. The concept of the European high-class standard is relatively new for the country. Recently there was a case of two waiters leaving the restaurant. They eventually got employed with other restaurants and divulged trade secrets. Thus, there was no concept of loyalty. This has happened several times in the past. The same thing happens with assistant chefs. Since no incentives were given, they see no future and growth in the restaurant. The head chef being occupied by Patrick Pages, seems to be the only relevant position in the restaurant. He is the only one with high pay. In addition, as revealed by one of the administrative staff in charge of bookkeeping, there are no formal trainings and development programs. No one is available for counseling and to advice chefs and waiters on career planning. Thus, there is high turnover in personnel. Recommendations An important ingredient in boosting the morale of the individual worker and in improving productivity is motivation. This very elusive dimension propels people to think, feel, and act in certain ways. Motivation is predicated mostly on his values and needs. At Monterosso, waiters and assistant chefs could be induced to stay on their jobs by giving those incentives (monetary and nonmonetary benefits) for exemplary performance. Management must take time to determine the factors that motivate their staff. Through good feedback from customers, waiters can be given performance bonuses. Assistant chefs could be sent to training schools to further improve their craft and to train them for higher positions. In other organizations worldwide, various theories of motivation have been espoused by Taylor, Maslow, Mayo, Herzberg, McClelland, McGregor, to name a few. The theory of motivation that one espouses reflects the manager’s, organization’s, and the workers’ needs and values. An effective manager endeavors to know and understand the motivation of his constituents and uses such knowledge to help them meet their needs and improve their productivity. Since motivation carries a lot of culture underpinnings, the manager should be able to apply any theory of motivation in the light of cultural diversity in the workforce. Conclusion It is possible to become entrapped in the intricacies of human behavior and it is easy to go astray in a maze of theories. Furthermore, since there are no complete theories of motivation and there is no one theory on which all managers and workers agree, an efficient manager must be able to apply relevant theories depending on the traits, characteristics, values and behavior of their employees. To the manager, motivating people is perhaps the highest challenge. His task is to motivate employees towards excellent performance, not once, not usually, but at all times. In the end, both management and personnel must work together towards the achievement of personal and organizational goals. References Business Dictionary, 2010. Definition of Discretionary Effort. Viewed 12 Jan. 2010, < http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/discretionary-effort.html> Herzberg, F, 1966, Work and the Nature of Man. World Publishing Co., Ohio. Herzberg, F, 1981, “One More Time: How You Motivate Employees?” in Nestor N. Pilar & Rafael A. Rodriguez, (eds.), Readings in Human Behavior in Organizations, JMC Press, Inc. Quezon City. McClelland, DA, 1975, The Achievement Motive, Appleton Century-Crofts, New York. Martires, CR, 2004, Human Behavior In Organization, National Bookstore, Philippines. Martires, CR & Fule, GS, 2004, Management of Human Behavior in Organizations, National Bookstore, Philippines. Maslow, AH, 1970, Motivation and Personality, Harper and Row Publisher, New York. Monterosso 2007, Monterosso, viewed 12 Jan. 2009, Padua, MA, et.al., 1991, “Does Money Motivate Secondary School Educators?” Unpublished Term Paper, Undergraduate Program, College of Business Administration, University of the Philippines. Successful Entrepreneur Characteristics. (undated). Viewed on 12 Jan. 2009 from Read More