Motivation Types of Chinese EFL Learners and Relevant Motivation Strategies - Research Paper Example

 Motivation types of Chinese EFL learners and relevant Motivation strategies 1.1 Introduction In modern society, the involvement in foreign language learning programs is a necessity in order for individuals to improve their position in the job market. However, the patterns of such programs worldwide are different in accordance with the local social and cultural characteristics but also the cognitive abilities of the individuals involved. In developing countries, like China, the development of foreign language learning programs has been rapid the last decades following the development of all the country’s industrial sectors. The specific issue is highlighted in the study of Yang (2001) where it is noticed that ‘knowledge of foreign languages often has been considered an important indicator of internationalization of higher education; in modern Chinese history, foreign language learning has been one of the basic means for China’s survival’ (Yang, 2001, 341). It is not made clear however whether there are specific methodologies for the increase of the effectiveness of these programs; moreover, it is not mentioned whether FL programs in China refer to a specific language. The research published in the literature (see also relevant studies below) leads to the assumption that in China the FL programs most preferred by individuals are those referring to the English language. In any case, the development of FL learning programs across China can be used in order to identify the country’s key cultural and social characteristics as well as the trends of education as they have changed under the influence of the educational practices used in other countries worldwide – referring especially to the Western countries that have been developed to strategic commercial partners for China. Towards this direction, it is supported that ‘foreign language learning in China reflects China’s history, perceptions of international scholarly relations, and assessment of the world situation’ (Yang, 2001, 341). In fact, all FL learning programs developed across the country would be led to a failure if they were not aligned with the local ethics and culture. On the other hand, because the social and cultural characteristics of the country of origin (referring to the foreign language involving in a specific FL learning program) should be also taken into consideration in the specific project, the co-existence of Chinese and foreign ethics would be carefully examined and evaluated – as possible – before the development of such a project. Current paper focuses on the motivation types developed by Chinese EFL (English foreign language) learners; the potential structure of motivation strategies referring to such projects is also examined taking into consideration the relevant views of theorists. The reason for the quick development of English foreign language (EFL) learning programs across China can be identified primarily in the structure of the global commercial market; the ‘hegemony’ of English language in the commerce around the world led to the simultaneous increase of the EFL learning programs in all countries within the international community. Even in USA the influence of English language patterns has been extremely strong influencing the country’s national language patterns (Heinrich, 2007). Despite the significance of the external environment (e.g. social and cultural trends) on the development of EFL learning programs there are also other factors that can influence the progress (and the form) of these programs: the measures taken by the governments in relation with these programs but also the personal perceptions of individuals on the particular projects. Among these factors, the view of the personal perceptions of individuals on specific learning strategies could influence the performance of these individuals when participating in a specific EFL learning program. Indeed, the study of Noels et al. (2001) led to the conclusion that ‘students need to develop the sense that they are in control of their own learning process’ (Noels et al., 2001, 425). However, in practice the role of personal perceptions on the performance of individuals in EFL learning programs cannot be precisely estimated because different perceptions would be developed by individuals with different social, cultural or educational background. Despite the above issues, theorists have accepted that personal perceptions on EFL learning programs are important since these perceptions ‘support feelings of intrinsic motivation which are central to sustained effort at the learning task’ (Deci and Ryan, 1985, 1995 in Noels et al., 2001, 425). It is clear from the above that the examination of the performance of Chinese EFL learners to relevant learning programs should be based mainly on the role of motivation developed by individuals in accordance with their personal perception on such projects but also with the social/ cultural framework of the region involved. 1.2 EFL Learners – aspects and strategies The behaviour of individuals that participate in a specific language – learning program could be explained using many different approaches. The findings of the literature lead to the assumption that individuals that participate in such a program have usually different reactions/ response to the problems appeared during this program; the social and cultural background of the particular individuals but also the characteristics/ needs of the language involved play a key role in the development of specific approaches by learners that participate in a language – learning program. In practice, it has been proved that individuals that participate in a specific language – learning program can respond to the needs of the language taught even if some key aspects of this language are not directly explained to them; it is an issue of cognitive ability or else of the ability to understand the possible interpretation of a language’s symbols even if the exact description of these symbols is not available in the mother language. The above issue was examined in the study of Ying (1999) in which ‘twenty-seven English-speaking learners of Chinese (the experimental groups) and 20 native speakers of Chinese (the control group) participated’ (Ying, 1999, 41) trying to develop the appropriate interpretation of a sentence that includes the ‘zijj’ (syllabus used in Chinese sentences). The above study led to the finding that ‘English-speaking learners of Chinese had knowledge of ambiguity of antecedence of ziji inside a moved predicate, and lack of ambiguity of antecedence of ziji inside a moved NP, although such information is not directly available in English’ (Ying, 1999, 41). In other words, the understanding of the key parts and meanings of a foreign language can be supported by the native language’s grammatical rules even if there is no equivalent grammatical form between these two languages. The above example refers to the use of English grammar for the understanding of Chinese grammatical forms; however, Chinese learners that have different native language (apart from English) could also respond within the same framework if a similar task was delegated to them. Moreover, Chinese learners that would try to understand the grammatical forms of a foreign language (English or other) could also follow the same practice – use of the native language’s grammatical rules in order to understand the functions/ patterns of a foreign language. The above reaction could be possibly explained using the theories developed in psychology regarding the participation of individuals in similar projects – learning – related initiatives. Different approaches have been developed in theory regarding the performance of EFL learners. Usually the criteria used for the support of each particular theoretical view are depended on the cognitive skills of learners, their personal perceptions on the EFL learning program and their commitment to the specific program – as it can be identified through their efforts to respond to the project’s requirements. In this context, it is noticed that three major facts can influence the performance of EFL learners: ‘(a) Each ELL has unique strengths and weaknesses in each language mode (listening, speaking, reading, and writing) both in English and in his or her first language, (b) each test item poses a different set of linguistic demands that do not replicate across languages, and (c) raters may vary in their ability to properly interpret students’ responses’ (Flores et al., 2008, 135). On the other hand, it is supported by Chen et al. (2005, 610) that ‘settings where English is a foreign language (EFL) often present little or no opportunity to use English outside of the classroom; even when the environment’s broadcast and print media use English, people have very little incentive to access such input’. In accordance with the above, EFL learners around the world can develop their performance if the incentives given to them are appropriate; when the methods used for the development of EFL learning programs are appropriate, then it could be expected that the performance of EFL learners in the particular programs will be significant; however, it is necessary that the relevant initiatives are appropriately supported by the government; if EFL learners do not have many chances to practice English in their daily activities then it would be very likely that these programs will fail to achieve the targets set – development of knowledge of learners on a specific language. It should be noticed that the above comments refer to all FL learners – i.e. the learners of English or other language as a foreign language; governments around the world should take into consideration the specific issues when relevant programs need to be developed across a specific country; the methods used for the development of these programs should be careful chosen taking into consideration the social/ educational background of learners and the feasibility of these programs – in terms of funds available and the prospects for practice of the language involved within the professional or the social environment. 1.3 Motivation – role in performance of foreign language learners The importance of motivation for the success of FL learning projects has been based on the principle that ‘language learners with higher levels of motivation will be higher achievers’ (Chen et al., 2005, 610). Even if we accept the above statement, still the identification of the exact context of motivation within the framework of a FL learning program can be characterized as a challenging task. Moreover, the explanation of the role of motivation within various FL learning projects would be depended on the theoretical framework used as well as of the skills/ competencies of learners participating in a particular project. The role of motivation on the development of FL learning programs has been highlighted in the literature. In accordance with Dornyei (1994, 273) ‘motivation is one of the main determinants of second/ foreign language (L.2) learning achievement’. One of the most important theorists referring to the specific issue is Gardner (1985 and 2001) who ‘established scientific research procedures and introduced standardized assessment techniques and instruments bringing L.2 motivation research to maturity’ (Dornyei, 1994, 273). The important of the study of Gardner for the development of research on L.2 motivation is also highlighted by Yihong et al. (2007) who supported that ‘in the classical social psychological theory of language learning proposed by Gardner and his associates, there are two major types of motivation, instrumental and integrative; there are also two sets of learning outcome, linguistic and nonlinguistic’ (Yihong et al., 2007, 133). On the other hand, other types/ forms of motivation could be possibly observed within a FL learning program: the intrinsic and the extrinsic motivation (a distinction based on the theory of Dornyei, 1994). At a next level, it could be noticed that ‘extrinsic motivated behaviours are the ones that the individual performs to receive some extrinsic reward (e.g. good grades) or to avoid punishment; with intrinsically motivated behaviours the rewards are internal (e.g. the joy of doing a particular activity)’ (Dornyei, 1994, 275). In accordance with the above studies, motivation – in its various aspects as indicative described above – can influence the performance of learners in EFL learning programs; however, the effects of motivation on the performance of learners in such programs can be interpreted using a series of criteria – issues related with the personal perceptions of learners could co-exist with the social and cultural trends of the country involved or the characteristics (grammatical/ cultural) of the foreign language. However, through the years, the role of social/ cultural trends in the development of FL learning programs has been strongly criticized and doubted. In this context, Humphreys et al. (2008) supported that ‘there are now attempts to redefine what integrativeness might mean with regard to English in the modern world, where the language is no longer necessarily associated with the cultures of its native speakers’ (Humphreys et al., 2008, 314) – a fact that has been doubted by other studies, like the one of Yang (2001) presented in the introductory section of this study. Regarding the role of motivation in the development of FL learning programs, it is noticed (Humphreys et al., 2008) that through the years – especially after 1990s – other dimensions of motivation (apart the ones proposed by Gardner and Lambert, 1959 and 1972) were considered to be related with these programs. Each one of the theorists involved in the effort to identify the role of motivation in the development of FL learning programs use different approach when explaining the significance of motivation for the improvement/ growth of these programs. The theory of Gardner in this field remains the basis for most of the studies focusing on the specific issue. In accordance with Dornyei (1994, 273) ‘Gardner’s motivation theory does include and educational dimension; the main emphasis in Gardner’s model is on general motivational components grounded in the social milieu rather than in the foreign language classroom’. In other words, the theory of Gardner could be used in order to explain the development of specific FL learning methodologies within a specific educational context; however, this theory would rather inappropriate when having to identify the reasons for the failure of specific methodologies used in FL learning projects. In the empirical research, various models have been used in order to prove the relationship between motivation and the learners’ performance in specific FL learning programs. An indicative example is the research conducted by Humphreys et al. (2008) among students in Hong Kong. The findings of this research indicate that there are ‘quite distinct patterns of motivation towards the various languages, with the compulsory languages, English and Putonghua, being perceived as having a greater instrumental value than the chosen languages but with English and the chosen languages being regarded more positively than Putonghua in affective terms’ (Humphreys et al., 2008, 313). The above study leads to similar assumptions with those developed after the study of the work of Gardner. More specifically, chosen languages and English – being regarded as the personal choice of learners even if English is compulsory – are more likely to be perceived positively by learners; motivation that would be expected to be higher in this case would lead to the higher performance of learners compared to the study of Putonghua – a language that has been included in the FL learning program without the consent of learners. In any case, the emphasis on the role of motivation in the performance of learners within specific FL learning programs would not be a constraint towards the identification of other factors that possibly influence the effectiveness of these programs. Indeed, the study of Lakshmanan et al. (2001) led to the conclusion that ‘the comparative fallacy in interlanguage studies, regardless of the nature of the bias (i.e., target language or native language) can lead to the underestimation and/or overestimation of the learners’ linguistic competence’ (Lakshmanan et al., 2001, 393). Motivation – in all its aspects as presented above – has a primary role in the development of FL learning programs – however through the years the effects of other factors in the performance of learners within these programs should be taken into consideration. From another point of view, it should be mentioned that the involvement of motivation in the explanation of the performance of learners in FL learning programs can be appropriately examined only if the resources available can support the specific task. Regarding this issue it is noticed that ‘motivation has caught relatively substantial research attention in China since the 1980s; many of the related studies were government funded, involved research items, and the findings are well known within the Chinese English language teaching (ELT) circle’ (Yihong et al., 2007, 135). In the above study it is not made clear whether the lack of governmental support could lead the relevant research into severe delays; moreover, it is not made clear whether the response of participants/ learners could be different under different political/ social conditions. The role of government in the development of all aspects of educational activities should be considered as important – not only in China but in all countries worldwide; however, even when this support is not adequate – because there are no resources available or because the resources delegated to the specific project are not appropriate – educational initiatives should be promoted as possible by individuals taking into account the fact that the success of educational schemes is related with the personal development of the persons involved. 1.4 Chinese EFL learners – description of approaches and targets – role of motivation In China, the development of FL learning programs has being related with specific factors, like the following ones: ‘the diversification of contexts for CSL/FL learning in terms of the linguistic, cultural, educational, professional, and social needs of learners’ (Linnell, 2001, 54). On the other hand, it has been proved that teachers who are asked to teach within a specific framework usually have to face specific problems: ‘interlanguage, developmental sequences, pedagogical grammar, conversation, and culture’ (Linnell, 2001, 54). In other words, culture has an important role in the development of FL learning programs in China – the specific programs as part of the country’s educational framework are closely related with the society and are therefore expected to be influenced by the local culture and ethics. On the other hand, the response of Chinese EFL learners to the various parts of the particular program may be influenced by the fact that grammatical and structural differences between English and Chinese make the participation in such a program a challenging task for individual of both the above social and cultural background (i.e. both for Chinese and British). Regarding this issue, it is made clear by Robertson that ‘it is well known that the Chinese language does not have functional equivalents of the English definite and indefinite article; there is plenty of observational evidence that Chinese learners have difficulty with the article system in English’ (Robertson, 2000, 135). Other difficulties could be also observed in the effort of Chinese learners to participate actively in EFL learning programs. Apart from the grammatical differences between the two languages that could lead to the delays in performance of Chinese EFL learners, there are also other issues that need to be taken into consideration by the planners of the particular programs. More specifically, it seems that Chinese follow specific patterns of behaviour when responding to the challenges/ tasks set within a FL learning program. Despite the fact that the cooperation is promoted within the classroom, other problems are likely to appear during the development of such a project. In this context, it has been found that ‘active participation and accurate, appropriate and meaningful feedback in Asian cultures is constrained by fear of mistakes, politeness norms, and the belief that peer feedback lacks credibility’ (Roskams, 1999, 79). Of course, there are certain aspects of the Asian culture, like the concentration on the achievement of the target set (hard efforts on the plan set) and the high commitment to the professional/ personal choices that support the positive performance of FL learning programs. When the methods used for the development of EFL learning programs in China were examined using as a basis the behaviour of teachers/ educators towards the learners, it was revealed that ‘despite the overwhelming demand to improve English proficiency in the shortest possible time, EFL researchers and educators in China have not paid ample attention to the overall nonlinguistic effect of English learning on the learner as a person’ (Yihong et al. 2007, 136). In other words, the strategies used for the promotion of EFL learning programs in China may be appropriate under the current professional needs of individuals but they are not appropriately processed using the country’s social and cultural ethics and trends. However, in China – as in other countries worldwide – the role of social and cultural ethics in the development of daily activities is quite important; for this reason, no educational initiative would be expected to be successful unless being based on the country’s social and cultural traditions. The above views are supported by the findings of the research of Chen (2005). In the particular study it is revealed that ‘Chinese learners (EFL) tend to avoid sentences that contain small clause complements; learners’ difficulty with small clause complements involves underlying first language transfer’ (Chen, 2005, 1). In accordance with the above, Chinese EFL learners could perform at high levels during a specific EFL learning program only if the various parts of this program are aligned with the social and cultural context of the specific country. The personal perceptions of learners would be also expected to influence the success of the specific program – see the role of motivation in the success of FL learning programs explained above – but only under specific terms and conditions; FL learning programs that ignore the country’s culture and ethics would be rejected by the participants – even if accepted at a primary level these programs could not be viable in the long term. 1.5 Conclusion The examination of the role of personal perceptions of learners in the success of EFL learning programs has led to the assumption that the response of learners to the requirements of these programs can be differentiated in accordance with the level of motivation developed by each particular individual/ learner during the progress of the specific program. On the other hand, most of the theorists that have studied the particular field agree that motivation can be considered to be a criterion for the success of EFL learning programs; however, the development of motivation in individuals cannot be achieved through specific methodologies; it seems that it is rather the result of interaction of personal perceptions with the external (social/ cultural) environment (see Figure 1, Appendix). In the study of Detaramani et al. (1999) it has been revealed that ‘learners who are keen on using the self-access centre have a stronger desire to improve their English, have higher intrinsic motivation and more positive attitudes towards learning English’ (Detaramani et al., 1999, 124). In other words, highly motivated individuals are more likely to reach a high performance to EFL learning programs. It is not mentioned though whether this interaction could be delayed under the influence of specific facts. On the other hand, it is supported that ‘the disparity in importance attached to the most influential foreign languages by Chinese academics corresponds to the current influence of countries speaking those languages’ (Yang, 2001, 341). Under different market conditions – where there would be no dependency on foreign capital – the development of FL learning programs would be more appropriately planned. The participation to these programs would be also based on personal motivation and not on the professional needs of participants. In this context, the criteria related with the development of EFL learning programs across China could be easier identified and evaluated reflecting the personal perceptions of participants and not the market/ society trends. References Chen, M. (2005) English prototyped small clauses in the interlanguage of Chinese/Taiwanese adult learners. Second Language Research, 21(1): 1-33 Chen, J., Warden, C., Chang, H. (2005) Motivators That Do Not Motivate: The Case of Chinese EFL Learners and the Influence of Culture on Motivation. Tesol Quarterly, 39(4): 609-633 Detaramani, C., Chan, I. (1999) Learners' Needs, Attitudes and Motivation Towards the Self-Access Mode of Language Learning. RELC Journal, 30(1): 124-150 Dornyei, Z. (1994a). Motivation and motivating in the foreign language classroom. The Modern Language Journal, 78, 273-284. Flores, G., Li, M. (2008) Examining the Dependability of Academic Achievement Measures for English Language Learners. Assessment for Effective Intervention, 33(3): 135-144 Gardner, R. (1985). Social psychology and second language learning: The role of attitudes and motivation. London: Edward Arnold. Gardner, R. (2001). Integrative motivation and second language acquisition. In: Z. Dörnyei and R. Schmidt, Editors, Motivation and Second Language Acquisition, University of Hawai’i, Second Language Teaching and Curriculum Center, Honolulu, HI (2001) pp.1–19. Heinrich, C. (2007) Globalization, Language, and the Tongue-Tied American: A Textual Analysis of American Discourses on the Global Hegemony of English. Journal of Communication Inquiry, 31(2): 98-117 Humphreys, G., Spratt, M. (2008) Many languages, many motivations: A study of Hong Kong student’s motivation to learn different target languages. System, 36: 313-335 Lakshmanan, U., Selinker, L. (2001) Analysing interlanguage: how do we know what learners know? Second Language Research, 17(4): 393-420 Linnell, J. (2001) Chinese as a second/foreign language teaching and research: changing classroom contexts and teacher choices. Language Teaching Research, 5(1): 54-81 Noels, K., Clement, R., Pelletier, L. (2001) Intrinsic, Extrinsic and Integrative Orientations of French Canadian Learners of English. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 57(3): 424-442 Robertson, D. (2000) Variability in the use of the English article system by Chinese learners of English. Second Language Research, 16(2): 135-172 Roskams, T. (1999) Chinese Efl Students' Attitudes To Peer Feedback and Peer Assessment in an Extended Pairwork Setting. RELC Journal, 30(1): 79-123 Yang, R. (2001) An Obstacle or a Useful Tool? The Role of the English Language in Internationalizing Chinese Universities. Journal of Studies in International Education, 5(4): 341-358 Yihong, G., Yuan, Z, Ying, C., Yan, Z. (2007) Relationship Between English Learning Motivation Types and Self-Identity Changes Among Chinese Students. Tesol Quarterly, 41(1): 133-155 Ying, H. (1999) Access to UG and language transfer: a study of L2 learners' interpretation of reconstruction in Chinese. Second Language Research, 15(1): 41-72 Appendix Figure 1 – Responses to language learning programs (Chen et al., 2005, 614) Read More