Relationship of Management and Leadership - Term Paper Example

Fundamental sectors of management: the presence and the role of leadership, marketing and Internet in the managerial activity I. Introduction When examining the particular issues involved in the practices used by a manager in an organizational environment we have usually to face a series of parameters that influence the success of any applied project. A possible explanation to this phenomenon can be the multi-level structure of any modern enterprise as well as the changeable elements of the human personality – as refer to a specific manager. In this context, among the several elements of the organizational governance there are three that could be characterized as the most important ones due to their role in the firm’s overall performance and survival in its market. These elements are leadership, marketing and Internet. All three have been examined thoroughly in the literature as well as in the empirical research in order to be evaluated as of their importance in the institutional development. Current paper examines these issues using assumptions made in the literature but also findings of research trying to relate them with the management practices followed in private enterprises. II. Management and Leadership IIa. Relationship of management and leadership In order to identify the relationship between management and leadership we should primarily proceed to a description of the term ‘leadership’. Under these terms leadership could be characterized [1] as ‘a process by which a person influences others to accomplish an objective and directs the organization in a way that makes it more cohesive and coherent; leaders carry out this process by applying their leadership attributes, such as beliefs, values, ethics, character, knowledge, and skills’. At a first level it should be made clear that leadership does not present always the same form. Towards this direction it has been noticed by Ackroyd (2000) that the leadership style has a direct influence to the methods that the leader use in order to apply a specific strategy. In this context, before deciding on a particular leadership style, the leader has to consider thoroughly all the particular aspects of his/ her decision and especially the possible consequences of every specific choice. However, it should be taken into account that even under the same circumstances the decisions made by two different leaders regarding the same issue will not be exactly the same. Moreover, it has been proved that [2]: a) Trust and confidence in top leadership was the single most reliable predictor of employee satisfaction in an organization; b) Effective communication by leadership in three critical areas was the key to winning organizational trust and confidence: a. helping employees understand the companys overall business strategy, b. helping employees understand how they contribute to achieving key business objectives, c. sharing information with employees on both how the company is doing and how an employees own division is doing - relative to strategic business objectives. The above proposed methods for a successful leadership strategy do not exclude the design and application of other leadership plans whenever this is estimated as necessary. One of the most important elements for the success of any leadership project seems to be the participation of the leader in its application. In this context, participation has been considered as a process in which influence is shared among individuals who are otherwise hierarchical unequals (Locke et al. 1979; Wagner 1994). Participatory management practices balance the involvement of managers and their subordinates in information-processing, decision-making, or problem-solving endeavors (Wagner 1994). In line with the research on participative management, participative decision making has been emphasized in relation to job satisfaction (Cotton et al. 1988; Macy et al. 1989). Under these terms leadership affects management directly through the need for existence of certain elements in the approach of business problems by the CEO. For this reason, it has been found by Bielski (2005, 26) that successful CEO’s have the following attributes: ‘a) they value managing and leading people, i.e., getting work done through others; b) they are intellectually curious, c) they ‘walk the talk’; d) they are comfortable with their authority e) they understand that to deliver full value, every aspect of the leadership system must be aligned with strategy: structure, processes, people, and human resource systems’. The above attributes, which in fact can be applied in management generally, prove the interactivity between management and leadership. There are of course many other requirements that a successful leader has to meet. In any case, according to O’Neill (2002, 15) in order to ensure organizational reform, the leadership must answer the following questions: ‘a) what were the critical success factors in previous successful change efforts? b) what caused other efforts to fail? Are you prepared to take on the obstacles? c) who can veto? Can anyone say yes? d) what is the organizations risk profile? e) what has created a window of opportunity? How long might it last? f) what is the up side for stakeholders? g) what Have We Learned?’ The above considerations have to be taken into account not only in cases when a reform is been attempted but in any occasion that the critical view of the specific leader is required. The existence of innovation – both as the leader’s characteristic and the firm’s strategy – is considered as absolutely necessary. According to the study of Kesler (2000, 26) innovation should be divided in four major categories, an example of which could be the following: ‘1. Finance, 2. Process, 3. Offering and 4. Delivery’ In general terms, leadership [3] is just one of the many assets a successful manager must possess. Care must be taken in distinguishing between the two concepts. The main aim of a manager is to maximise the output of the organisation through administrative implementation. To achieve this, managers must undertake the following functions: a) organisation; b) planning; c) staffing; d) directing; e) controlling. IIb. Effects of leadership on management practice in private enterprises The leader’s behaviour in an organizational context affects directly the institution’s performance and development. Especially in the private sector, the consequences of the leader’s choices are more severe as there is not the ‘protection’ of the public ownership (with all the advantages that can offer when evaluating the management’s decisions). In this context, Viceri and Fulmer (1997) have argued that improving "strategic leadership development" is the single most potent focal point for strengthening an organizations strategic competitive position. Bergmann, et. al. (1999) have identified eighteen specific competencies ranging from navigating change, to proactive listening, to coaching others, to handling emotions under pressure. Tichy and Cohen (1997) have taken the competencies discussion one step further arguing that all leaders must be able to not only demonstrate the competencies, but teach them to others in their organization as well. Contingency theories of leadership have taught us that leaders are only effective in relation to a particular context. (Vroom, 1998; Hersey et al. 1996). As that context changes, so must the leader behaviors. Furthermore, the study of Kim (2002, 236) shows how managers use of a participative management style, use of participative strategic planning processes, and effective supervisory communications affect job satisfaction. Thus, the study suggests that emphasizing participative management and fostering effective supervisory communications can enhance employee job satisfaction. In this regard, organizational leaders commitment to changing organizational culture from the traditional patterns of hierarchical structure to participative management and empowerment should be emphasized in the public sector. The level to which the manager’s decisions can enhance the job satisfaction and the employees’ performance is of significant importance mostly in the private enterprises where the effects of the personal initiatives are more direct in the institution’s development. Moreover, the communication between the members of a managerial team when referring particularly to multinational enterprises has become more difficult due to the distance existed between the company’s branches. As a result, a steadily growing number of managers find themselves leading project teams with members located literally around the world. Yet, in many instances, the budget doesnt allow the team to meet on a regular basis--if at all. Ultimately, the challenge for leaders of virtual teams is to create a level of collaboration and productivity that rivals the experience of the best collocated teams, and to accomplish these outcomes against the backdrop of the rapid changes facing nearly every business today (Buono et al., 2004, 5). Towards that directions, it has been stated by Bell et al. (2002) that virtual team leaders need to be more aggressive than leaders of conventional teams in (1) creating structures and routines that substitute for more traditional performance management and team development functions, and (2) distributing these leadership functions to the team. On the other hand, the existence of factors that are human related is more extended in private enterprises (as in public ones the set goal is the priority of the organizational operation with any other element to be of secondary value for the performance of the public owned institution). For this reason, Beske et al., (1998, 9) adopted the views of Dr. Marilyn Buckner, President, National Training Systems who believes "non-technical, unattended human factors are, in fact, most often the problem in failed change projects" and who ‘recommended a strategy built around the following eight factors’ (in order to overcome the above problem): 1) Pain (i.e. existed corporate condition that needs to be changed), 2) Picture (which equals to the organizational vision) 3) Perspective, 4) Process Champions (i.e. most enthusiastic employees), 5) Participation (as a necessary element for the design and the application of any strategic plan), 6) Person-to-Person Communication (as a prerequisite for the completion of the effort), 7) Plan Preparation (in accordance with the needs of the specific corporation) and 8) Positive Reinforcement. The above ‘strategic tips’ although proposed for the specific case of the application of a change management policy can be used in practice in every business plan applied in an organizational context. III. Marketing and Management IIIa. Interaction of marketing with management In conducting marketing communication operations, firms have several options for sourcing the various communication activities. Essentially, it is a make or buy decision: source from within or externally. If communications functions are sourced on the outside, one option is to employ a fullservice advertising agency. Other options include using specialized suppliers for creative, media planning/buying, direct response programs, public relations, and other services (Griffin et al., 1997, 24) On the other hand, according to Aufreiter et al. (2000, 53) when traditional marketers think of organization, they mean structure: distinct product, channel, and customer groups focusing on specific functional tasks, such as brand management, customer segment management, and market research. Functional managers play the pivotal roles in these functionally focused groups, which are responsible for generating ideas and taking them to market. One of the elements that prove the existence of close relationship between marketing and management is the calculation of the performance of the former which is usually taking place using principles of the latter. In fact (Cioffi, 2004, 237) in todays economically challenging business environment, no organization is exempt from performance measurements. With increasing pressures to cut costs, all budgets are under scrutiny the basic question should be how we could become more effective, faster, and for less? When economic times are turbulent, marketing budgets are typically at the top of the "hit list." Marketing leaders are now being asked to show results or payback for their spending, and measurement systems are a useful way of providing uniform statistics on program results. However, measuring marketing impact and ROI has historically proven to be difficult if not impossible. Many factors, such as soft objectives and multiple marketing strategies, have hindered attempts to measure it. It should also be noticed (Cook, 1997) that there is no marketing plan which could be applied in practice without the prior examination and evaluation of the firm’s position and strength using the general principles and methods as recognized by traditional management theory. IIIb. The role of marketing to the formulation of management techniques in private enterprises The influences of marketing on management policies especially the ones applied on private enterprises can take many forms. In practice, management techniques have to be differentiated in accordance with the demands of each specific occasion. As an example, during recession, managers have to take immediate and appropriate decisions in order to avoid possible negative effects on the firm’s performance on a long term basis. Recession has been defined in the marketing literature as a "process of decreasing demand for raw materials, products and services, including labor" (Shama 1978) or as a "state in which the demand for a product is less than its former level" (Kotler 1973). Recession calls for marketing managers to use strategies to stimulate consumer demand. Such strategies often require a redefinition of the target customers and the marketing mix. They may include narrowing the product line, offering cheaper products and quantity discounts, lowering prices, increasing promotion, and offering products directly to consumers (Shama, 1993, 62). To weather the recession, Bonoma (1991) advises practicing marketing managers to: (1) "Avoid |empty middle marketing," (2) "Dont mistake expansiveness for empire," (3) "Do more for less," and (4) "Remember what winter is like when summer again comes" (Bonoma 1991, 10). On the other hand it has been stated by Shama (1993, 68) that since the perceived impact of the economic environment and the resulting management behavior depend on company size and economic sector, a single policy cannot help all companies recover from a recession. Instead, a policy mix geared to help recovery in different sectors and different sized companies may be necessary. In certain client situations, because of organizations preoccupation with functional focus, capable people are seen as being "strapped in functional boxes, constrained and trained not to solve business problems but to do advertising or do public relations or do direct marketing" (Schultz et al. 1993). In others, where brand management is practiced, communications "are being developed and implemented at the lowest levels, that is, by the most junior and inexperienced employees" (Schultz et al., 1993). Both conditions are considered as barriers to implementation. Another important aspect of marketing’s influence on the managerial practices applied on the private enterprises is that the latter have to be in accordance with a series of variables set by marketing, like the trends of the specific market, the preferences of the customers as estimated in a particular area or for a given time period and the performance of similar techniques that have been applied previously in a specific market area (Mcarthur, 1997). The evaluation of the existence and the role of the above elements to the formulation of the firm’s marketing strategy belongs to the manager of the organization. IV. Management and Internet IVa. Management and Internet – relationship and methods of cooperation The influence of Internet in all market areas has been increased to an impressive point the last years. By mid-1988, the number of computers connecting to the Internet had increased remarkably. By the end of 1991, over 1.25 million hosts were connected worldwide, serving between 7.7 and 14.2 million individuals; Today, the Internet is a system of over 48,000 networks, spanning more than 180 countries, incorporating over three million computers. According to Business Week (1997a), some 40 million people use the Internet compared with one million in December 1994. The number of connections to the Internet is expected to double every year. If the current expected growth rate persists, there will be more than 200 million networks connected to the Internet by the turn of the century (Karakaya et al., 1998, 10) However, in general terms, the market area influenced by the use of Internet is not in fact of this level. In this context, it is important to realize that Internet is a medium used (Karakaya et al., 1998, 14) by a small but a significant percentage of the global population (par example, 23% of the people over the age of 16 in the U.S. and Canada). The percent of users is much smaller in other countries. Therefore, managers cannot and should not rely on the Internet to market their products. In fact, the number of people purchasing products over the Internet is even smaller. Many people visit Web sites to gather information, but purchase products through traditional means. In order to present the role of Internet in managerial decisions Zarowin (2000, 22) referred to a survey by PC Computing magazine according to which 54% of white-collar workers confessed they lacked the skills needed to take advantage of the current technology--forget the technology thats right around the corner. (Just because workers can successfully click on a reply button to respond to e-mail does not mean they have e-mail proficiency.) The survey also round that most users developed even their limited skills not through formal training but by trial and error--a slow, frustrating and inefficient process. A similar research is that of Geiger et al. (2001, 159) which utilized data from 113 firms doing business on the Internet. According to their findings firm resources have a significant impact on decisions to outsource or internalize electronic value chain functions. Specifically, firms with a greater reliance on sales intermediaries were found to deploy fewer technical e-commerce resources than firms less dependent on sales intermediaries. Moreover, the number of intermediary procurement functions was positively related to investment in web-based human resources. The results also suggest that firms experiencing lower levels of transaction frequency utilize more types of Internet sales methods. Another issue that prove the interaction between Internet and management is the increase in number of online brokerage activity, the volume of which has grown dramatically in a short time frame (Goldman Sachs, 1999). For example, in 1999, around 43 percent of all stock trades in the United States were conducted online (InternetNews, 2000). Around 65 percent of all stock trades, including those by institutional investors, were transacted online in Korea by October 2000, a dramatic increase from the five percent that was similarly traded at the beginning of 1999 (Business Week, 1999; Kim, 2001) IVb. Effects of Internet on management practices applied on private enterprises According to the study of Afuah et al. (2000) the examination of the role of Internet on the managerial practices applied on the private enterprises should begin by the categorization of the companies that use the Internet during their daily activities. The above researcher found that there are four basic types of companies that use the Internet in the core of their business: (1) e-commerce companies that sell goods over the Internet; (2) content aggregators who gather and display content from multiple sources; (3) market makers that act as intermediaries or conduct electronic markets; and (4) service providers who furnish Internet based services. Moreover, Karakaya et al. (1998, 13) stated that the Internet can be used in conducting worldwide on-line marketing research. In addition to on-line surveys, which are already being done by some companies, marketers are likely to use the Internet to test commercial and print advertisements with potential customers. Many companies offer incentives such as free software and other promotional materials to motivate the Web site visitors to complete surveys. Some also ask the respondents to fill out their names and addresses, which then go into a mailing list file. On the other hand, e-commerce has been considered as a crucial sector that proves the close interaction between management and Internet. In this context, it has been stated by Globerman et al. (2001, 749) that the industrial organizational impacts of e-commerce will reflect two developments: 1) the expansion of relevant geographical markets, and 2) increased competition in those markets. The two changes are related. Specifically, as electronic commerce makes it less costly to identify beneficial transactions across a wider range of potential transactors, it should lead to an increased integration of markets that are currently segmented by high transactions costs across geographical space. Furthermore, geographically larger markets are ordinarily more contestable than smaller markets. In addition to marketing company products and services, the Internet is also an excellent medium for collecting information about competitors. Managers can visit the Web sites of their rivals and learn about product offerings as well as other useful information to design and implement counter strategies (Karakaya et al., 1998, 15, Kobrin, 1995). Another area in which the Internet can help improve a companys performance is customer service. Through electronic mail, customers can contact a business for assistance using products, to check on their orders, or simply to get information (Karakaya et al., 1998, 15) On the other hand, the use of Internet can include several risks. For this reason Internet abuse could be viewed as a kind of systems risk, i.e., the likelihood that a firms information systems are insufficiently protected against certain kinds of damage or loss (Mirchandani et al., 2003, 22). As with systems risk, managers are generally unaware of the full range of actions they can take to reduce the problem (Straub and Welke, 1998). Therefore, an examination of research theories that have been applied to systems risk may prove relevant to Internet abuse. The general deterrence theory, drawn from the field of criminology, suggests that sanctions and disincentive measures can reduce systems abuse by making potential abusers aware that their unethical behavior will be detrimental to their own good (Pearson and Weiner, 1985). According to this theory, strategies that can be adopted to reduce systems risk fall into four sequential activities: (1) deterrence, (2) prevention, (3) detection, and (4) remedies (Forcht, 1994) In order to avoid the above pitfalls when applying strategies which are Internet related, managers should be continuously trained in order to be informed on the technology’s development but also on all the possible technological solutions that could help their company to be expanded. For this reason Zarowin (2000, 22) stated that all financial professionals must assess the consequences of their knowledge gap and determine how much effort they must invest in learning to use the new tools effectively. Managers must budget time and money not only to bring their staff members up to speed but also to stay ahead. Generally speaking, the Internet can set new standards for total relationship management in both breadth and depth. "Breadth" means that a relationship will increasingly last for the entire ownership experience, including the time before and after the purchase of the product or service. "Depth" reflects the degree of interaction with consumers at any given point in their experience of a product. The Internets role in consumer relationship management has important consequences for marketers. Network-based interactions must be integrated into the rest of a business, with all that this entails (Cartellieri et al., 1997, 52) Under the above terms, (Reichheld, 1996) effective e-business strategy requires that an organization provide customer value that is superior to that of the competition. To offer superior delivered value, marketing should directly influence three core business processes: product development management (PDM), supply chain management (SCM) and customer relationship management (CRM) (Srivastiva et al., 1999). The goal of the PDM process is to create solutions that customers need and want. SCM processes comprise the acquisition of physical and informational inputs and the efficiency and effectiveness of transforming these inputs into customer solutions. The objectives of the CRM process are to shape customers perceptions of the organization and its products through identifying customers, creating customer knowledge and building committed customer relationships (Greco et al., 2003, 25). From all the above management sectors, the most important one for the business development has been considered to be the CRM. In recent years, CRMs potential to contain and reduce costs has been explored. CRM, in concert with other processes, can help reduce churn or turnover in a companys customer base. Better customer management can result in lower sales and service costs, higher buyer retention and, thus, lower customer replacement expenditures. V. Conclusion The presentation of the above issues regarding the structure and the operation of management in private enterprises has proved that in fact there are a lot of elements that could be common for all organizational activities. However, the particular character of private institutions as independent and risky corporate bodies imposes the differentiation of certain managerial policies in order to cover the increased requirements of the organizations of this type. The role of leadership, management and Internet in the design and application of any relevant managerial attempt has to be considered as crucial. However, it should be noticed that any similar initiative should be evaluated using different criteria which have to be in accordance with the nature and the aims of the particular institution. The application of general managerial principles is not excluded however all measures and techniques applied have to be re-examined as of their applicability in the specific case. 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