Sports Management - Essay Example

SPORTS MANAGEMENT By Location Introduction Volunteers are one of the most significant human resource departments available within the sports sector. Since time immemorial, there have been individuals willing to give their time, resources, and effort to help their fellow individuals during sporting events(Stebbins & Graham, 2004, p. 198). They provide economic and organizational efficiency and bring innovation into a sporting organization. The financial and operational success of major sporting events highly depends on the contribution made by volunteers(McMahon-Beattie & Yeoman, 2004, p. 191). Given the enormous contribution of volunteers in sport events, a greater understanding of the volunteer motivations is required in order for event managers to develop effective recruitment and retention strategies(Marshal, 2006, p. 3). Moreover, the research on volunteer motivation is quite significant for the actualization and continuity of voluntary activity. The essay critically evaluates the motivation of volunteers in large sporting events, as well as the impact of volunteering on the management and operations in large sports events. Part one Motivation of volunteers in large sports events Motivation often refers to the complex forces or other mechanisms that stimulate one to start and maintain a voluntary activity, aiming towards the achievement of personal goals. Scholars in Organizational Behavior research explain motivational theories from two different perspectives. One is from the content theories of motivation while the other is the process of motivation. Content theories are interested in whatever motivates individuals in the workplace(McMahon-Beattie & Yeoman, 2004, p. 192). Some of the best-known theories include Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, exchange theory, Herzberg’s two-factor theory, Alderfer’s ERG theory, and expectancy theory. On the other hand, the process of motivation theories centers their arguments on how an individual’s behavior is stimulated, sustained, and eventually stopped. Some famous process theories include expectancy theory and equity theory. The theory of the hierarchy of needs, developed by Maslow in 1943 suggests that people have specific requirements that are important to human life. The most elementary needs are physiological followed by safety, love and belonging, esteem, and self-actualization(Stebbins & Graham, 2004, p. 199). Maslow’s theory is accepted and used broadly and applies effectively to the sports sector. Need is considered to be a critical factor that determines the benefits of stimulus for an individual. Based on this theory, Knowles also concludes that volunteerism is a means for serving society. Thus, the theory tends to emphasize on the egoistic aspect out of the various types of volunteer motivations. Through this theory, volunteers recognize that they have capabilities, freedom, and confidence to address chronical social problems in society. For instance, the application of this theory has led to an increase in the numbers of volunteers at the Olympic Games from almost zero to 40,917 used during the 2000 Olympic Games held in Sydney. Exchange theory deals with the concept of rewards such as emotional satisfaction, economic accrual, good feeling, and social prestige(Kremer, et al., 2005, p. 180). Ideally, a volunteer who seeks recognition but feels that the recognition bestowed on others is more may become dissatisfied and decide to quit in their unpaid position. Particular to sporting events, the social exchange theory facilitates the understanding of the impact of both positive and negative experiences that affect future behavior. Volunteering in sporting events aligns with this theory since it provides people with a wonderful opportunity to express and demonstrate their beliefs, learn new things, as well as enhance their efficacy and self-confidence through an exchange relationship. From various studies on this theory, it is evident that satisfaction among volunteers is multi-faceted and can be tied to motivation, commitment, external benefits, and organizational management elements(Kremer, et al., 2005, p. 181). For instance, training is an important aspect of the Sunbelt Indy Carnival, an Indy Car event that takes place every year on the Gold Coast, Australia. Beyond the actual event, training sessions were availed due to their benefit in providing the opportunity for volunteers to share their experiences and opinions. The training sessions contributed to the sense of community of the volunteers and positively impacted their level of satisfaction. The motivation-hygiene theory propounded by Herzberg is also closely related studies of volunteer motivation in the sports sector. According to the theory, there is a close relationship between the higher order needs of a person and the motivators that result in satisfaction(Chelladurai, 2006, p. 100). Also, self-expression plays a considerable role in voluntary work and provides volunteers with the opportunity to develop abilities and skills, as well as a sense of fulfillment or accomplishment from the assigned task. The most important connotation of the theory were that motivators were closely related to work itself, while the hygiene factors were related to the context the work was carried out(Chelladurai, 2006, p. 100). Volunteers who employ this theory are extremely important in the sports industry and take different roles in many sports events. For instance, volunteers at the international and special-needs sport events such as the standard chartered Hong Kong Marathon had a higher motivation in their values, career, social, enhancement, and protective factors than the volunteer in local and national organizations. The Existence, Relatedness, and Growth (ERG) theory by Alderfer (1972) allows the order of the needs for different volunteers to be different(Chelladurai, 2006, p. 100). Alderfer presented three different levels of essential needs that are based on the Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (1954). The three levels of needs include relatedness, existence, and growth. Existence ought to incorporate the safety and physiological needs while relatedness is considered to be another part of safety needs according to Maslow’s definition. Also, Maslow closely associated growth with self-actualization and self-esteem. In simple terms, growth includes internal esteem needs and self-actualization(Chelladurai, 2006, p. 100). A good example of a company in the sports sector that has applied the ERG theory is Adidas. On the existence of needs, the company provides employees with online safety measures and health insurance as well as other insurance. Furthermore, they provide opportunities for people to volunteer in their training programs and work as first aiders during major football events. Equity theory is also one of the famous process theories, where behavior is motivated by the desire to reduce anger or guilt associated with social exchanges and that are perceived to be quite unfair(Chelladurai, 2006, p. 124). For instance, for rewards to be effective and meaningful, compensation or pay must be considered equitable according to a certain referent comparison. The equity theory of motivation consists of three major components: input, outcomes, and comparison or reference persons. Based on the equity theory, a volunteer provides inputs to their position, including effort, knowledge, education, experience, technical skills, and time. In return, the volunteer receives a little compensation, recognition, benefits, promotion, and colleague relationship. Volunteers can use change inputs, change outputs, change attitude, and change the reference person to obtain equity. For instance, Christian Adam conducted a volunteer survey with the aim of quantifying the motivation of volunteers over the acceptance of a task at the Olympic Games. Following the equity theory, various intrinsic and extrinsic incentives were inquired. Importance of volunteers at Olympic Games Volunteers have been quite integral to the attainment of the goals and objectives of the Olympic Games since they were first used in the 1948 London Games(VanHuss & Forde, 2010, p. 87). Each time the British Capital prepares to host the Games once again, the role of the volunteers has never been more important due to the changes they bring into the competition. London 2012 volunteers were referred to as ‘Games Makers’ since they were making the Games happen. The Games Maker recruitment kicked off in September 2010 by the London 2012 Organizing Committee receiving 240,000 applications from interested parties. Among the applications, over 70,000 people were chosen to volunteer and were expected to take on a variety of roles across the Olympic venues. Their roles ranged from welcoming the visitors to transporting athletes, helping out in the Technology team, and making sure that the competition results are displayed quickly and accurately. Volunteers are considered to be the lifeblood of every Olympic Games. They act like the face of the Games, and everyone believes that they can make a difference between good and great games. Their experience is based on previous games officiated, and it is imperative for all the staff members to understand the volunteering role, in order to guarantee them equal and fair treatment and encourage future interest in the voluntary role. Some volunteers are often recruited to be part of the head office team and help in educating the paid members of staff on how to work alongside the other volunteers(VanHuss & Forde, 2010, p. 88). Similar support training is always provided to the volunteers to help them understand their roles effectively and stimulate them to work effectively well towards the realization of the event’s goals and objectives. There are five salient motivations that are considered to be the most relevant to sports volunteers. The motivations include altruistic value, community concern, personal development, social adjustment, and ego enhancement(Paul & Lange, 2014, p. 136). To begin with altruistic value, volunteerism is altruistic and prosocial by nature. The altruistic value of a volunteer represents their beliefs in contributing to the society and helping others. People with altruistic value tend to think about the well-being of other people, feel empathy for them and act in a manner that benefits them. Volunteering at sports events with a worthy cause provides people with a unique opportunity to express their humanitarian appeal and translate the deeply held values into actions. Previous research on volunteerism suggests that the intention to volunteer is closely related to the altruistic value,and the volunteers often choose their voluntary acts without expecting a quid pro quo. The personal development is a motivator for sports volunteerism and refers to the desire for one to receive self-oriented benefits that pertain to personal growth and new skills. Sports volunteers that seek personal development value the chance to gain knowledge and experience as well as the opportunity to challenge themselves and test the existing abilities and skills(Finkel, 2013, p. 34). Personal development motivation represents one of the most important aspects of egoistic motivations. Through volunteerism, people get to learn job-related skills and allow those who are not active in the job market to acquire and maintain the right employment skills. Personal development motif is consistent with Becker’s (1964) theory of human capital investment. Human capital investments are activities that enhance labor market value. These activities have the ability to improve the skills, mental health, and knowledge of a volunteer. Community concern reflects one’s sense of obligation to involve their communities. More and more sporting events rely on volunteers to handle the basic roles in order to cut on expenditure and meet the rising demands of the public. Volunteerism is regarded as an important aspect of civil society within communities. Community involvement is also an important dimension of self-expression during volunteer activities at sporting events(Finkel, 2013, p. 34). Likewise, ego enhancement highlights the motivations that deal with positive desires of one’s ego. Various studies on mood and behavior suggest that people volunteer as a means of maintaining positive feelings about themselves. A positive feeling about oneself is a powerful motivator for one to apply for volunteering in the Olympic Games. For instance, to help with the staging of Olympic Games is an opportunity that can occur once in a lifetime for most people. Volunteering for international sporting events like the Olympic Games is very exciting and can instill self-esteem and pride among sports volunteers. Social adjustment motivates people to volunteer concerning their relationships with others. One can participate in volunteer activity together with his or her friends and can also engage in activities that are viewed favorably by other people. Past research has consistently proved that people consider perceived social expectations whenever they form behavior intentions(Baum, 2009, p. 174). Subjective norm is also positively related to one’s intention to volunteer in the Olympic Games. Also, people in a social group with similar interests would consider it suitable to volunteer only when the group need is high and whenever opportunity for recognition is promised. Furthermore, social adjustment is significantly related to the satisfaction that comes with volunteering and the intentions to volunteering. Part two Human resource management Human resource management is an area of administrative focus that deals with the employees within an organization. HRM is a part of the process that enables an organization to achieve its objectives. In the sporting industry, once the general strategy and direction have been established, the next stage involves formulating firm objectives that develop into action plans(Baum, 2009, p. 93). The objectives set for sporting events cannot be achieved without the required resources, and this includes the employees and volunteers. HRM forms part of the process that determines which kind of people are required for a sporting event, how to get them, use them, and manage them effectively without discrimination. The HRM department integrates perfectly well with the other management processes. Over the past few years, the sport and leisure industries have undergone a considerable organizational change in operation, focus, and structure(Slack & Parent, 2006, p. 239). From history, most sport and leisure organizations were funded publicly and run by the government. However, other organizations were community-based and were more reliant on substantial involvement of volunteers. Many sport and leisure organizations have retained these forms of delivery and structure while a significant portion have adopted commercially driven operations with the aim to deliver unique sport and leisure services. In today’s society, most global oriented organizations have emerged from enterprises initiated locally, and volunteer administrators are being replaced by more salaried professional(Slack & Parent, 2006, p. 240). However, we can never underestimate the power volunteers have on the success of sporting events as witnessed in major sporting events such as the Olympics Games. Normal employees vs. volunteers Normal employees Volunteers There is a variety in the hours worked by normal employees or consultants since they work for pay. The wages could be seasonal, hourly, and even 24-hour positions. However, a majority of employees work between 20 and 40 hours each week. There are no rules on time for volunteers. They can immerse themselves into service for 24 hours a day as long as they can. However, most volunteers give far lesser hours each week than employees do. Volunteers also give their services at any time. Most employees are driven by the motivation of financial rewards available to them. They handle their tasks to their limits, and few employees are always willing to go beyond the expectations of the human resource management. They operate on a fundamental element of free will. They are more willing to dedicate their time to an activity within the sporting sector without much compulsion with much consideration on the limited rewards available to them. Social obligation and peer pressure are thought to have a huge impact on free will and motivation to volunteer. There is always a related beneficiary to their activities. The beneficiaries could be customers, clients, business partners, and competitors among other parties interested in the services offered by the organization. There is always a beneficiary to their activities. The scope to which the beneficiary is defined is always open to interpretation. In most cases, volunteers provide their services to beneficiaries not related to them before. Employment is a serious type of work. Employees are expected to persevere in handling their duties but can as well change their roles to more comfortable ones where possible. Employment is demanding and the best motivation is the financial attachment connected to tasks. Volunteering is a serious type of leisure. Its characteristics include the need to persevere with the activity involved and the tendency to have a career in it. They enjoy their free will to work and enjoy the various benefits that are sought from volunteer and leisure activities. Employment requires adequate training and certification in a given niche. In most cases, employees stick to a single role for most of their lifetime in an organization and repeat the same activities each and every day of their life. Volunteers require little skill or knowledge in the tasks at hand since training is offered before tasks are assigned. Nonetheless, the little skill is satisfying and even enjoyable. Most employment activities happen in formal environment and are carried out for the general good of the public. Volunteer activities can range from organized (formal) to (one-to-one) informal setting. Formal activities are carried out in the context of an organization and the work undertaken contributes to the collective good. Informal activities involve helping friends, relatives, and neighbors. Table 1: Differences between normal employees and volunteers Volunteers and the HRM process The management and running of sports events rely on the commitment and involvement of a large number of volunteers. Volunteers are described as the backbone of sporting events, and over 50,000 are involved in one way or the other in soccer activities(Cuskelly, et al., 2006, p. 142). Since volunteers are an integral part in sporting events, the HRM department needs to make them feel valued and treasured for the great work they do. Volunteers join sporting events with different expectations and needs, as well as a diverse range of interests, backgrounds, experiences, and skills. Thus, their motives, involvement in the sporting activity, level of commitment, benefits they seek and the amount of time they devote to the event varies enormously. The HRM is in-charge of planning and organizing the selection, recruitment, orientation, training, and development of volunteers(Cuskelly, et al., 2006, p. 142). Most importantly, the performance of volunteers is often underpinned by their unique ability to handle their duties effectively, commitment, and the effort they put into the job. Volunteers ease the work of the HRM department since a greater percentage of the people who volunteer have probably participated in the activity and are willing to give something back to the society. Others volunteer since their children, friends, and family members are participating in the sporting event. Furthermore, others work voluntarily in sporting events because of their sense of pride in the community and their love for the game. Volunteers understand and embrace the many benefits of working in a sporting event. Social contact with like-minded people, great opportunities to deal with future stars, the pride of a growing club or participant and being able to gain the skills and knowledge of a game makes it interesting for volunteers to give their best in the roles they play(Trenberth & Hassan, 2013, p. 254). They also love the ethos of the sporting activity they are involved in since this can impact on the formation of someone close participating in the activity or rather the formation of the community in question. Volunteers have the ability to manage other volunteers making it easier for the HRM to implement their work strategy at major events. Their involvement eases the work handled by managers and the normal operational team and allows them to concentrate on other activities. Whenever volunteers are needed, a motivated and suitably qualified individual among the recruited is often selected to serve as the Volunteer Coordinator. The Volunteer Coordinator is the individual who takes over all the major duties of the HRM manager on the side of the volunteers and plays a number of critical roles(Leng & Hsu, 2015, p. 262). For instance, they determine where the volunteers are needed, prepare or update job descriptions, and plan a recruitment campaign. At times, they may also be required to analyze the training needs and update the human resource inventory on a regular basis. It is important to have the position of a volunteer coordinator due to the strategic importance they play in recruiting and matching up the volunteers to their appropriate positions. Volunteer Coordinator should hold a policy level position in the human resource department since they need to be aware of the objective and strategic plans of the sporting event in order to guide the other volunteers on the right way(Pedersen & Thibault, 2014, p. 390). The volunteer coordinator also manages the volunteer program and policies developed by the HRM department for the whole duration of a sporting event. He works closely with the Event coordinator to ensure the event coordinators meet the requirements of the HRM department. Tasks preceding an event are best handled quickly and effectively when a large number of volunteers are used(Hopwood, et al., 2012, p. 177). However, the Event Coordinator and the Volunteer Coordinator cannot manage the recruitment and monitoring of the large number efficiently. One advantage of using many volunteers in the HRM process is that they can work in small groups and work units that all report to the volunteer supervisors. Small groups of volunteers work best since each group is driven by different motivation to provide free services and will expect to prove their level of competency to the supervisors in order to be considered for future volunteer opportunities(Hopwood, et al., 2012, p. 177). Volunteers also work in subcommittees that span across the marketing, catering, finance, equipment, and facilities department of a sports event. Each of these departments has specific supervisors who are volunteers and guide the other volunteers on how to handle their tasks effectively. Even though volunteers are thought to be beneficial to the sports event planning team, they can at times make the HRM process much difficult. Thus, at times the Volunteer Coordinator may be required to balance the needs, interests, and efforts that the volunteers are willing to contribute towards the success of the major sports event. The work of the volunteers should match the demands and expectations of the Event Coordinator and the event committee. At the same time, volunteers are motivated by different factors in all the activities they do, and this makes a difference in their willingness to offer the best services in the activities preceding the event(Hall, et al., 2008, p. 131). Thus, if not well balanced, the involvement of volunteers in the preparation program could result in major loopholes that eventually affect the success of sports event. Key characteristics whilst managing volunteers at Olympic Games Volunteering can help develop one’s skills, but the management team ought to protect the interests of the sports event too. Managing volunteers involves striking a balance that can help you and the members of staff get the most out of Olympic Games(Sulayem, et al., 2013, p. 10). Olympic Games attract a huge number of volunteer applications, and if not careful some of them could ruin the success of the event. For instance, the London 2012 Games attracted over 240,000 volunteer applications, but only 70,000 ‘game makers’ were selected and trained to prepare the event. The selected volunteers agreed to a minimum of ten days work, together with an additional three days for training prior the commencement of the games. But, management is not all about enforcing rules and regulations for your employees. Instead, it is about understanding their legal rights, as well as your responsibility as their supervisor. According to recent surveys, most supervisors at Olympic events are never sure of their obligations to volunteering staff members(Theodoraki, 2007, p. 118). However, it is worthy to remember that volunteers do not have a legal right to take some time off during the volunteering period. Furthermore, they are not entitled to payment for all the volunteering tasks done. However, as a supervisor keen on efficient and quality service, you could decide to offer them short breaks and freebies. The comparison of volunteer expectations and attitudes at Olympic Games is often clouded since the notion of volunteering is often constructed socially. Thus, the experiences of supervisors in the Beijing 2008, London 2012, and Russia 2014 Winter Olympics are expected to be different. Furthermore, in managing volunteers, supervisors should consider their importance to work, as well as the image they create about the host nation. The program management of volunteers involves a system approach that allows the available resources to be distributed rationally among the volunteers concerning the objectives they ought to achieve(Day, 2013, p. 6). The event managers define a list of tasks and the volunteers allocated to fulfill them depending on their capability and interest to support the event. Before allocating tasks to the volunteers, it is important to put in mind their needs and expectations. These factors guide managers in determining the role to be played by each volunteer in the Olympic Games preparation process. Volunteer management becomes a critical factor especially in Mega Sports events that are complex and politically prerogative. Volunteers desire some level of control over the work environment, but don’t want to feel inconvenienced, or rather taken for granted. Management of volunteers is often less complicated and less costly to an organization preparing a mega sporting event. For instance, the Organizing Committee of the London Olympics and Paralympic Games might have adopted the idea of volunteer management due to the vast number of people that were willing to volunteer. Ideally, one can expect that the initial motivations to volunteer should change during the event(Day, 2013, p. 7). But, it is also possible that negative consequences touching on the management style would be overwhelmed by a sense of euphoria towards the end of the event. Such a case was experienced during the Olympic Games hosted in Sydney, Australia. Service quality of volunteers at the Olympic Games vs. Paid workers Volunteers provide unique and high-standard services before and during the sporting event(Connors, 2012, p. 72). For instance, the quality of volunteer services offered during the 2008 Olympic and Paralympic Games held in Beijing was the most important goal achieved by the Olympic Volunteer Program. Volunteers form a large and highly representative force that advocates for the delivery of quality services as compared to paid workers. Paid workers support the preparation programs to the measure of the amount paid to them and could even draw much into the budget of sporting events. For a volunteer program to offer quality services, efforts must be made to establish a service system that is in line with Olympic rules. Volunteers also encourage mass participation in the sporting events compared to paid workers. They promote their diverse cultural backgrounds and encourage members from all walks of life to attend the event too(Connors, 2012, p. 73). Also, volunteers often abide by the operational rules and standards set for performance since they are less motivated by monetary benefits. Since most of the volunteers are past participants in the sport or rather enthusiasts, it is easier for them to attract foreign residents to attend the sporting event too. On the other hand, paid workers operate on a limited schedule of time and might not manage to encourage mass participation. The audience considers paid promotion to be biased and manipulated to a greater extent. Conclusion The size of the Olympic program has elicited a lot of debate within the Olympic movement for a long time now. The number of applicants interested in volunteering at Olympic and other events has continuously grown to a capacity that the Olympic movement cannot accommodate. However, the sheer size of the Olympic program is the fundamental source of the appeal drawn from the sporting activities. The preparations by volunteers, simultaneous competitions, and the wide range of sports enable a diverse array of narratives to be generated by the audience and participants. Nevertheless, the Olympic experience is shared by more than the officials, athletes, and spectators. 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