Theories of Motivation - Literature review Example

Theories of Motivation al Affiliation) Theories of Motivation Part A Dr Stephen P. Robbins defines motivation as the process that is responsible for the intensity, persistence and direction of an individual towards pursuing certain interests or in the attainment of a specific goal. Motivation can be further explained as any other factor that causes increased efforts in the input by a person towards an action, with hope and knowledge that the action would bear fruit. There are two types of theories of motivation namely the Process theories of motivation and the Content theories of motivation. A process theory of motivation has its definition of motivation as a cognitive, rational process that occurs in an individual. A content theory on the other hand defines motivation in terms of the satisfaction of needs. Examples of process theories are the Adams’ Equity theory and the Victor Vroom’s expectancy Theory while examples of content theories are the Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory, Fredrick Herberg’s Two Factor Theory and the ERG Theory by Clayton P. Alderfer. The two types of motivation theories not only differ in their definitions of motivation but also in the idea of the applicability of motivation towards work. The Content Theories pay more attention to the identification of the needs of individuals and how these needs are given priority. These theories have more concern for the different types of incentives that give people the drive to attain certain goals. The Content Theories offer a logical approach to understanding motivation, and are easy to understand. They are easily applicable to a real life scenario. The Process theories on the other hand offer a theoretical set of solutions towards the understanding of work motivation. Victor Vroom’s expectancy model and further extensions by Lawler and Porter assist in providing an explanation of the presence of essential cognitive variables in the human body and how they coordinate with each other to create the process of work motivation. Lawler and Porter’s model also looks deeper into the relationship that exists between performance of an act and satisfaction gained by performing such an action. In a nutshell, the Process Theories place more concern on the identification of the variables that contribute to motivation with how they relate with one another being of even greater importance. Part B Content Motivation Theories The Abraham Maslow Theory of Hierarchy of Needs Abraham Maslow came up with the thought that human needs which can lead to a desire to undertake an activity can be put in a particular order to form a hierarchy of probability of occurrence and pre-potency. This theory assumes that a need that has not been satisfied has a direct dominance over the behaviour that triggers off an activity that will subsequently ensure the satisfaction of that particular need. The satisfaction of this need, this theory posits, sparks off the desire to satisfy a higher need. The sequence begins as a deprivation of the satisfaction of a need. This is followed by a domination of behaviour that pushes individuals to fulfilment of the desired need which then activates the desire to satisfy another higher need. For instance, the human body has obvious physiological needs that need to be satisfied. If they are not, the human body ceases to function optimally. Some of these physiological needs are breathing, water, homeostasis, sleep among others. Once an individual’s physiological needs are met, the safety needs take over. This theory is based on sound theoretical framework as it tries to give an explanation of what motivates work towards the achievement of goals. Maslow backed up his thoughts with research. However, this theory falls short of meeting the goals of prediction and guidance and control over organizational behaviour. ERG Theory Clayton Aiderfer came up with a revision of Maslow’s theory. In doing so, he came up with his most significant contribution to the theories of motivation by reducing the levels in the hierarchy of needs from five, as given by Maslow’s, to three. The levels he prescribed were Existence needs, Relatedness needs and Growth needs. These needs, Aiderfer argues, change position in hierarchy as the circumstances transform and change. The ERG theory is seen to be more realistic than Maslow’s theory because it allows for regression back to the lower levels in the event that the needs at the upper levels are no longer being satisfied. This theory assumes that the satisfaction of a need does not necessarily mean that that particular need shall remain as met. The Existence group of needs has more bias towards the provision of the basic needs for material existence like safety and physiological requirements. In the context of work, Existence needs are satisfied by earnings from a job in monetary form being used to purchase basic needs like food, clothing and shelter. Relatedness group of needs is more concerned with an individual’s desire to create and maintain relationships with the people around them like friends, family and colleagues. People feel more secure when they interact with others and are recognized in public. Growth group of needs focuses on the fulfilment of the need to be productive, creative and the desire to be able to accomplish meaningful goals. A person’s profession, career or job can satisfy his growth needs. Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory This is one of the most referred to motivational theories in places of work aside from Maslow’s theory. Herzberg came up with a theory that showed the difference between factors that satisfied workers and those factors that did not satisfy the employees. This theory posits that the opposite of satisfaction is ‘no satisfaction’ and not ‘dissatisfaction. Likewise, this theory goes further to stipulate that the opposite of ‘dissatisfaction’ is ‘no dissatisfaction’. Herzberg related five factors to job satisfaction namely achievement, recognition, work in itself, responsibility and advancement. Herzberg named these factors ‘motivators’. He then related them to needs for growth. On the other hand, he related job dissatisfaction to company administration and policy, supervision of staff, salary and wages, interpersonal relationships among colleagues at the workplace and working conditions that prevail at the workplace. He termed these as ‘hygiene factors’ and paralleled them to deficiency needs. Herzberg made a major impact by arguing that the provision of hygiene factors like higher salaries and improved working conditions would not trigger more motivation for workers, they would only provide less satisfaction. He argued that only motivators had the capability to motivate employees to undertake more work. His position was that in order for employers to get more from their workers, they should concentrate more on giving their staff recognition for their work and giving them encouragement to achieve more instead of increasing salaries as a way of motivating staff members. Process Theories of Motivation Adams’ Equity Theory This theory proposes that the motivation of a person can be based on what they consider as fair or unfair in comparison to others. Adams’ equity theory places focus on the work- compensation relationship of an employee. It also focuses on an employee’s attempt at trying to minimize any feeling of unfairness that may present itself to them. In a nutshell, the Equity Theory deals with fairness issues and social relationships among colleagues. Adams recognized that a person’s perception of fair and just treatment in social circles can have an effect on the motivation of that person. People would want to be fairly compensated for their contributions when compared to others. Individuals’ perception on fair treatment can also have an effect on their attitudes and behaviour. This theory can give a reason why workers who are paid high amounts of money in salaries still go on strike when the rest of the population does not understand the reason for such action. Individuals form their perception of justice and fairness by finding a ratio of their contributions and the results and comparing this to the ratios of others. Victor Vroom’s Expectancy Theory This theory assumes that the behaviour of an individual is formed as a result of the conscious choices they make from available options that have a purpose of maximizing their pleasure and minimizing their pain. This theory posits that the relationship between people’s goals and their behaviour at their places of work was rather complex. Vroom suggested that the performance of an employee was affected by factors such as their knowledge, personality, skills, abilities, and experience among others. These factors come from within the individual. Vroom suggests that in as much as people may have diverse goals, they can achieve some motivation if they incline their belief towards a positive relationship between efforts put into work and performance. Individuals need to recognize that good performance ultimately leads to desirable rewards, which in turn will help in satisfying their important needs. According to this theory, the desire of an individual to satisfy a given need should be strong enough to make their efforts worthy. The Expectancy theory bases itself on three beliefs: valence, which refers to the orientations of an emotional nature that individuals hold with respect to rewards, Expectancy, which places it upon employees to discover what training, resources and supervision is needed by the employees and Instrumentality, which gives the management the responsibility of ensuring promises made to employees in regard to rewards are satisfied with the knowledge of the employees. References Clayton, M. (2008, August 1). Super models: in a series of articles examining learning models, Dr Mike Clayton looks at Victor Vrooms Expectancy Theory--how we are calculating about motivation.. Training Journal, 9, 24. Facer, J. D., Galloway, F., Inoue, N., & Zigarmi, D. (2014). Creation and Initial Validation of the Motivation Beliefs Inventory Measuring Leaders’ Beliefs about Employee Motivation Using Four Motivation Theories. Journal of Business Administration Research, 3(1), 6-9. McInerney, D. M. (2011). Sociocultural theories of learning and motivation looking back, looking forward. Charlotte, N.C.: Information Age Pub.. Motivation theories. (Motivation: update).(Brief Article). (2003, July 1). Employee Benefits, 5, 4. Organizational Behavior I: Essential Theories of Motivation and Leadership.(PRODUCTION, INDUSTRY, COMMERCE)(Brief Article)(Book Review). (2005, August 1). Reference & Research Book News , p. 13. Spencer, D. A., & Scheuer, S. (2002). Social and Economic Motivation at Work: Theories of Motivation Reassessed. Contemporary Sociology, 31(3), 283. Sullivan, J. J. (1989). Self Theories and Employee Motivation. Journal of Management, 15(2), 345-363. Å¢icu, D. (2013). Theories of Motivation in Public Policies Process. 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