Organization Behavior and Learning - Term Paper Example

Organization Behavior and Learning – ORGD Table of Contents 0 Introduction 3 2.0 Empowerment: Key terms, approaches and concepts 3 3.0 Conclusion 7 References 10 1.0 Introduction Over the past years empowerment has become part of everyday management language. It has also been applied in various disciplines and management movements such as Management, human resource management (HRM), Psychology, philosophy, political science etc. it has been applied in concepts like total quality management (TQM), leadership, collegiality etc. Empowerment has been regarded as the solution to bureaucracy which has been attributed to workplace stifling of creativity and alienation of workers by the management. A review of literature shows little discontent in the application of empowerment in the workplace. For its benefits, it is assumed that empowerment is a universal solution appropriate to all organisations in all circumstances. Section 2 of this paper explores key terms, concepts, and theories of empowerment. Section 3 concludes with a discussion of the key concepts established in the paper. 2.0 Empowerment: Key terms, approaches and concepts The origin of empowerment as a form of theory was traced back to the Brazilian humanitarian and educator, Freire (1973). He suggested a model for liberating the oppressed people of the world through education (Freire, 1973). Parpart, Rai, & Staudt, (2003), are of the view that empowerment is an alternative approach to social development in local, grassroots community-based initiatives (Parpart, et al., 2003). Lincoln, Travers, Ackers, & Wilkinson, (2002) observes that empowerment has been used across a broad variety of disciplines like community psychology, management, political theory, social work, education, women studies, and sociology (Lincoln, et al., 2002). The concept of empowerment is conceived as the idea of power ie. either gaining, expending, diminishing, and losing power (Page & Czuba, 1999). The traditional concept of power was an isolated one, where it was held or used at the expense of other people (Lips, 1991). Empowerment has brought a new dimention of power. In recent times its has been shown that power can be strenthened through sharing with others (Kreisburg, 1992). In this sense, power sharing is multidimentional and helps people be incharge of their lives (Page & Czuba, 1999, p. 25). In underatnding empowerment one has to understand a few basic issues. Firstly, empowerment is coceived to be multidimensional or multidisplinary ie. It can be found within sociological, psychological, economic, political, and other fields. Secondly, empowerment occurs at various levels eg. group, community and individual. Thirdly, is social in nature as it is a process that occurs in relation to others (Page & Czuba, 1999). Finally, empowerment as both a process and an outcome, can be improved through measuring (Parpart et al., 2003). It should be noted that there have been recent studies and perspectives of empowerment (Blanchard, et al., 2001; Doore, 1988; Friedmann, 1992; Marciniak, 2004; Parpart et al., 2003). A review of terms associalted with empowerment from the socio-political fields reveal terms like self-strength, control, self-power, self-reliance, own choice, life of dignity in accordance with one’s values, capable of fighting for one’s rights, independence, own decision making, being free, awakening, and capability etc. These terms reveal that the term empowerment is both intrinsic and instrumental and is relevant at the individual and collective level, and can be economic, social, or political. Hur (2006) highlights key concepts and process of empowerment across different fields as shown in the table below. Source: Hur, 2006 In business management empowerment has been described as a venue to enable employees make decisions (Bowen & Lawler, 1992) and as a personal experience where individuals take responsibility for their own actions (Pastor, 1996). The first definition puts the onus on management, and the second emphasizes the importance of the individual for successful application of empowerment. Whereas, earlier research focused on empowerment as a set of management practices to delegate authority (discretionary empowerment) (Blau & Alba, 1982), recent research has centered on psychological empowerment, focusing on employee experience (Corsun & Enz, 1999). Kelley (1993) distinguished among three types of discretionary empowerment: routine, creative, and deviant, available during the service-delivery process. Routine discretion is implemented when employees select an alternative from a list of possible actions to do their jobs. Creative discretion is present when employees develop alternate methods of performing a task (Kelley, 1993). Deviant discretion, which is not preferred by organizations, involves behaviors outside the scope of an employee’s formal job description and authority. Thomas &Velthouse (1990) defined psychological empowerment as inherent motivation evident in four cognitions (meaning, competence, self-determination, and impact) reflecting an employee’s orientation to his or her work role (Thomas &Velthouse (1990). In the workplace, Fragoso (2000) perceives empowerment as being the enlargement of work of employees, thereby providing them with the responsibility and power to independently make decisions regarding their work without supervision and being able to create value to customers. Nelson & Quick (2011) define empowerment as "creating conditions for heightened motivation through the development of a strong sense of personal self efficacy," and explain that empowerment is becoming more and more important. Dubrin (2010) explains that empowerment is passing decision-making authority and responsibility from managers to group members (Dubrin, 2010). Collegiality is a form of empowerment. Certo (2003) perspective on empowerment is where employees are organized into independent groups and are empowered to change their work methodologies provided they improve product and service qulity (Certo, 2003). Nelson & Quick (2011), describe four dimensions of empowerment as meaning, competence, self determination, and impact Dubrin (2010) adds a fifth dimention which he refers to as internal commitment (Nelson & Quick, 2011). Individual empowerment is developed when people attempt to overcome their environmental constraints. These constraints can be psychological or intellectual. The aim of individual empowerment is to attain self-determination, self-sufficiency, and decision-making abilities. It is true that the concept of an individual must also be emphasized in empowerment programs. Empowerment must recognize performance of the individual because a company is as good as the individuals employed in the company. It has been observed that empowerment occurs at various levels including the individual level. Inasmuch as the target for most empowerment programs is on teams, the management must also develop programs to identify and reward exceptional individuals in the organization. It has been observed that a motivated employee is a highly productive resource to a company. In building belief of the individual the organization must create an environment where the individuals have a sense of ownership in what they do. This can be done through creating small performance units or through decentralizing resources and responsibilities, developing a culture of self-discipline, establishing clear standards and expectations, and providing a supportive environment. 3.0 Conclusion Review of literature on empwerment show that the essence of empowerment is to release, rather than ignore or underutilize, employees’ experience, initiative, knowledge, and wisdom. Since employee performance is a major factor that leads to the success or failure of a business. empowering employees enhances their skills and performance. It is also clear that delegation different form empowerment as it is assigning employees tasks so that a manager can concentrate on other jobs. Empowerment on the other hand involves assigning responsibilities, authority, and decision-making power to employees and holding them accountable for results. The source of empowerment is uppermost level of management within an organisation’s hierachy. The empowerment streams from the upper level of management to the next-lower levels. This process continues down through an organisation’s hierarchy. Empowerment involes receiving authority and decision making power from higher level and subsequently relinquishing authority and decision making power to employees below. The powers managers have can influence behaviour and work responsibilities. For empowerment to succeed there has to be trust, assurance, motivation, and support between the manager and the employees. Work-related decisions and full control of the work is pushed down toward the lowest operating levels. At the same time for empowerment to succeed employees must clearly understand their spe­cific responsibilities, authority, decision-making powers (Blachard, 2001). Yeh-Yun (1998), is of the view that there are three elements of empowerment, namely style, skills and staff. The success of empowerment will depend on employee’s working style of self management and teamwork, skills acquired through continuous traininig eg. communication and problem solvng skills and the staff culture in an organisation. The leaders must drive the process of empowerment. Empowerment presents obvious advantages to an organisation. Empowerment improves the performance and morale and self esteem of employees resulting in company success.Empowerment develops employees’ skills within an organisation as employees develop decision making skills resulting in ownership of their jobs thus enhancing overall job satisfaction. It also results in goal attaininment as employees continuously meet departmental goals. Empowerment also enables the utilisation of an employee’s full potential. Several studies have shown that emploees’ overall job satisfaction improves through empowerment programs. Empowermentalso reduces role stress (Zeithaml, et al., 1988). Singh (1993), obseved that customer-service employees experienced less role ambiguity when empowewred to exercise their discretionary powers (Singh, 1993). Empowerment facilitates quicker resolution of customer (Rafiq & Ahmed, 1998). A practical framework on empowering employees is in place. Firstly, the top management must relinquish power and authority. They must show commitment and facilitate the process of empowerment, without that there is no emowerment. Secondly the top management must be selective in identifying the employees to empower. It is true that not all the employees in the firm will show initiative as some will be unwilling to take up more responsibility. This principle is in line with XY theory of management. Thirdly, the upper management must clearly define roles and assign responsibilities, authority, and decision-making power in line with the goals of the company. The employees must also know how their performance is going to be evaluated. Fourthly, the upper management must help the organisation understand the need for change. This can be done through sharing information wether good or bad. This will enable the other employees to own the process. Fifthly, empowered to the company must offer training to employees. Such training might include the basics of cost and revenue, client relations, decision making. This will enable them have a clear vision of success. Continuos training must be emphasised as it is a major key to the success of a business. Lastly, the managemenet needs to support and inspire individual initiatives. References Blanchard, Carlos, & Randolph, (2001). The Three Keys to Empowerment .San Francisco: Barrett-Koehler Publishers, Inc. Blau, J.R., & Alba, R.D. (1982). Empowering nets of participation. Administrative Science Quarterly, 27(3), 363-379. Bowen, D.E., & Lawler, E.E. (1992). The empowerment of service workers: What, why, how and when. Sloan Management Review, 33(3), 31-39. Certo, S. C. (2003). Modern management (9th Ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.  Corsun, D.L., & Enz, C.A. (1999). Predicting psychological empowerment among service workers: The effect of support-based relationships. Human Relations, 52(2), 205-224. Doore, G. (1988). Shaman’s path: Healing, personal growth, and empowerment. Boston, MA: Dubrin, A. J. (2010). Leadership: research findings, practice and skills (6th Ed.). Mason, OH: South-Western Cengage Learning.  Fragoso, H. “An Overview of Employee Empowerment: Do’s and Don’ts.” Accessed at www.iusb.edu/journal/2000/fragoso.html. Freire, P. (1971). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Seabury Press. Friedmann, J. (1992). Empowerment: Politics of alternative development. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers. Hur, M. (2006).Empowerment in terms of theoretical perspectives:Exploring a typology of the process and components across disciplines. Published online in Wiley InterScience www.interscience.wiley.com Kelley, S.W. (1993). Discretion and the service employee. Journal of Retailing, 69(1), 104-126. Kreisburg, S. (1992). Transforming power: Domination, empowerment, and education. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Lincoln, N.D., Travers, C., Ackers, P., & Wilkinson, A. (2002). The meaning of empowerment: The interdisciplinary etymology of a new management concept. International Journal of Management Reviews, 4(3), 271–290. Lips, H. (1991). Women, men and power. Mountain View, CA: Mayfeld. Marciniak, B. (2004). Path of empowerment: New Pleiadian wisdom for a world in chaos. Nelson, D. L., & Quick, J. C. (2011). Organizational behavior: science, the real world and you (7th Ed.). Mason, OH: South- Western Cengage NY: State University of New York Press. Page, N., & Czuba, C.E. (1999). Empowerment: What is it? Journal of Extension, 37(5), 24–32. Parpart, J., S. Rai & K. Staudt, eds. 2003. Rethinking Empowerment: gender and development in a global/local world. London: Routledge Pastor, J. (1996). Empowerment: What it is and what it is not. Empowerment in Organizations, 4(2), 5-7. Rafiq, M., & Ahmed, P.K. (1998). A contingency model for empowering customer-contact services employees. Management Decision, 36(10), 686-694. Shambhala Publications. Singh, J. (1993). Boundary role ambiguity: facets, determinants, and impacts. Journal of Marketing, 57(2), 11-31. Thomas, K., & Velthouse, B. (1990). Cognitive elements of empowerment: An interpretive model of intrinsic task motivation. Academy of Management Review, 15(4), 666-681. Yeh-Yun, C. (1998). The Essence of Empowerment: A Conceptual Model and a Case Illustration. Journal of Applied Management Studies (December, 1998) Zeithaml, V.A., Berry, L.L., & Parasuraman, A. (1988). Communication and control processes in the delivery of service quality. Journal of Marketing, 52(2), 35-48. Read More