History of American Literature - Essay Example

?American Literature A nation’s literature is usually considered a record of the artistic and intellectual growth of its people, as also the development of their political systems and religious beliefs. However, as the earliest settlers in America were British, they were people who belonged to the same race as Shakespeare, Marlowe, Bacon and Ben Johnson. The earliest literature if it may be called that is therefore, a record of the hardships and dangers faced by the colonizers in their attempts to set up the first colonies in Virginia and New England. In fact it is reliably learnt that Shakespeare’s description of a storm in his play The Tempest, was inspired by the writings of one of the earliest men who arrived at the newly established colony, after a stormy and perilous voyage. However, these were the writings of men who were English and not Americans, so this may only be considered a prelude to American literature. It is however, an important first step to the study of the history of American literature, from the view of the artistic and intellectual development of America; as she slowly but surely cut her ties with the motherland, and sallied forth to become the glorious land of some of the greatest writers of modern English Literature. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. After the first immigrants who arrived in Jamestown Virginia in 1607, came two groups of emigrants, seeking religious freedom known as the Pilgrims and the Puritans. While the first settlers came in search of adventure and wealth, the Pilgrims and the Puritans were thoughtful, idealistic men, who came as settlers to make for themselves a home where they could practice religious freedom. The Pilgrim William Bradford and the Puritan John Winthrop were about the same age and came to America at about the same time. Perhaps the first American literary achievement can be traced back to the writings of these two men. John Winthrop, a political and religious leader, wrote a detailed journal of his activities in America and this journal together with his correspondence is one of the earliest records of the history and life of the people of Massachusetts. The power of Winthrop’s oratory was apparent in his earliest sermon that he delivered on board The Arbella that conveyed him to the shores of his new homeland; where he warned his fellow passengers about the dangers that lay ahead and urged them to “be knit together, in this work, as one man”(Winthrop, A Model of Christian Charity). What John Winthrop was to Massachusetts, William Bradford was to Plymouth, and his History of Plymouth Plantation is a simple tale of the life in the colony, but it also records the break of the pilgrims from the Church of England. These chronicles give us our first glimpse of the rough and hazardous life of these early pioneers, the perils that they faced, and the sometimes fanatical intolerance of their ways. For these settlers, religion formed a basis for everything, hence even their mundane everyday lives were ruled by religion. It follows then that the most powerful men of the communities were the clergy. These were distinguished men of learning, eloquent speakers and thinkers, who had fled England to find religious freedom elsewhere. Hence it comes as no surprise that religion was the dominant theme of their writings. Thomas Hooker, Thomas Sheppard and John Cotton are among the gifted ministers whose powerful sermons and theological treatises, full of wit and imagery, are a historical record of the times in which they lived and their fanatical and austere religious beliefs. There were often savage wars between the white man and the native Indians whose homeland was being encroached upon. Among these Puritan pioneers who were sometimes guilty of cruelty and injustice towards the natives of America, Roger Williams and John Eliot stand out as exceptions. Roger Williams was a man who was far ahead of his times in his thinking and consequently had frequent run ins with the narrow minded Puritans. He was finally banished from Massachusetts for his ideals of real liberty that found fault with robbing the Indians of their land and his proclamation that the state had no authority over an individual’s thoughts and opinions. John Eliot, also known as the ‘Apostle to the Indians’, was a gentle missionary whose life was devoted to converting the natives to Christianity and translating the bible into their language so that they could have small churches of their own. This translation into the vernacular of a people who had no written script, speaks volumes for the painstaking industry of the man. The early history of American literature would be incomplete without the mention of the scholarly achievements of three generations of a single family who were all brilliant leaders of the Puritan Massachusetts clergy. Richard Mather was an Oxford graduate and a minister at Dorchester, who like others of his generation sought to spread his religion in his new homeland. His son Increase Mather’s love of learning and his zealous publication of his discourses added significantly to the list of colonial publications that constitute early American literature. The most illustrious of the Mather family is undoubtedly Cotton Mather. An extraordinary intellectual, Cotton Mather had read Homer at the age of ten and was admitted to Harvard College at eleven to graduate at fifteen. His writings provide an uncanny insight into the beliefs of satanic possession and witchcraft that were prevalent at the time not only in New England but also in large parts of Europe. A case in point is Cotton Mather’s writing about the trial of a witch whose indictment cured people afflicted by her witchcraft. His account of the trial records, “It was Martha Carrier or her shape that grievously tormented them....that upon the binding of Carrier they were cured” (Mather,154). Mather’s Essays to do Good is recorded as having been an inspiration during Benjamin Franklin’s boyhood, but his most prolific work seems to have been the Magnalia Christi Americana, or The Great Acts of Christ in America. This great work seems to be one of the last literary works of this era of old Puritan theology. The eighteenth century writers favored a style and diction that was far more natural than the one favored by their predecessors. Early Poetry: It is surprising that despite a life that was strenuous in the extreme with danger a constant companion, and the rigid Puritan way of life giving little freedom for artistic indulgence, that there is a record of some poetry during this period. Although much of this kind of writing is in the form of rough epitaphs or psalms, the beginnings of a culture of poetical thought is seen to have been sown at this time. Popular poetry as in The Bay Psalm Book gives evidence of the artistic leanings of people who were straitjacketed by their religious beliefs. Amongst these crude efforts at poetry, Anne Bradstreet stands out showing a rare poetical gift. Her lyrics published in The Tenth Muse though showing influences of English writers are a moving account of her feelings towards her religion and her family. “That there is a God, my reasoning would soon tell me by the wondrous works that I see..... the order of all things night and day summer and winter..... certainly resolve me that there is an eternal being” (Bradstreet,8). These lines point to her intelligence and strong logical thinking at a time when people took things at face value. EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. The first half of the eighteenth century undoubtedly belongs to the era of personal narratives in the form of diaries and journals. Samuel Sewall, Sarah Kemble Knight, Jonathan Edwards, William Byrd and Ebenezer Cook are some of those who contributed to the literature of this period. As some belonged to the south while others to the north, one gets a mixed account of both, giving a witty and often hilarious sketch of life in the wildernesses of the vast land that these people occupied. The history of this period too is recorded in some of these writings, which are accurate accounts of the growth of the colonies and the phenomenal efforts of the colonizers in taming this wild country full of unknown dangers. Some are picturesque accounts of the adventures of some enterprising colonizers and their lively exploits among the people on the plantations in the south; while others are graphic accounts of journeys through beautiful, country but fraught with danger for the white man. The most outstanding among these writers was Samuel Sewall. His diary is probably one of the first insights into the political and social life of the people of New England, in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. His records are witness to the commercial life that slowly changed the attitudes of people from the rigidity of their puritanical beliefs towards more worldly attitudes. He was appointed Member of the Council and Judge of the Probate Court, and in this capacity became involved in the Salem witch trials of 1692. He however later publicly confessed to having erred in his judgment at these trials. His pamphlet The Selling of Joseph that was published by a Boston publisher in 1700 is considered to be the first condemnation of slavery. Although Sewall had condemned slavery even in his diary, The Selling of Joseph seems to have been the result of a petition to free a slave and his wife who were in bondage to a prominent merchant and magistrate of Boston. He begins by saying, “For as much as liberty is in real value next unto life: none ought to part with it themselves or deprive others of it” and goes on to say “It is most certain that all men as they are the sons of Adam, are co-heirs and have equal rights unto liberty, and all other outward comforts of life” (Sewall 1). Literature of the Revolution. The American Revolution served to emphasize the different concepts of politics held by the Americans and the British. As the colonists fought a bitter war and worked to lay the foundation of the new nation’s government, they were greatly influenced by Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Paine. Franklin one of the founding fathers of the United States of America became one of the most famous Americans of his time. “If you would not be forgotten, as soon as you are dead and rotten, either write things worth reading, or do things worth the writing.” he advised and did both, as a result of which he is admired and read about to this day (qtd. in Benjamin Franklin, Glimpses of the Man). An author, printer, scientist, politician, statesman and diplomat, Franklin used his gifts for the common good of all. His writings are a mirror image of himself - honest, down to earth, shrewd and witty too. Through his writings he tried to show the advantages of integrity and thrift, qualities he himself practiced. Franklin’s literary career began at the age of fourteen when he worked at his brother’s newspaper and wrote under a pseudonym. His publication of Poor Richard’s Almanack was the beginning of his success and rise to fame. The sayings of Richard the character he created for his almanac were both witty and wise and served as guidelines for the common people. His affordable newsletter Poor Richard’s Almanac was a newsletter that ordinary people could read and understand. His autobiography too reflects his simplicity and his faith in the rewards of hard work, diligence and living a simple frugal life. He owned to his personal drawbacks with humility and grace confessing that “In reality, there is perhaps no one of our natural Passions so hard to subdue as Pride. Disguise it, struggle with it, beat it down, stifle it, mortify it as much as one pleases, it is still alive, and will every now and then peep out and show itself.” helping people to understand that all men had flaws of character and overcoming them should be their constant endeavor (Franklin 42). A man of varied talents, he was among those who drafted both the Declaration of Independence and the Articles of Confederation. Franklin’s writings mark a shift away from the Puritan philosophy to a path of enlightenment and rational thought and a growing awareness of America as a country separate from England with her own values and aspirations. Franklin’s articles, pamphlets and reports concerning the discord with Britain emphatically shaped the cause of the colonists. His writings catered to a wide variety of people from non literates to sophisticated readers who could appreciate his wit and the irony of his writings. American literature in the second half of the eighteenth century reflects the struggle for freedom of the American colonies. “These are the times that try men’s souls” remarked Thomas Paine of the beginnings of the American Revolution (Paine, The Crisis). Paine’s career as a writer began when he began contributing articles to the Pennsylvania Magazine on a variety of subjects. Paine’s reputation as a revolutionary freedom fighter was established, with the publication of his Common Sense that urged immediate declaration of independence. He campaigned for a more effective tax system to meet the costs of war, convinced that Britain would eventually recognize American independence. However after America won her independence, Paine could not contribute constructively to the formation of a new government and finally went to France where buoyed up with the cause of the French revolution, he wrote his most well known work The Rights of Man in two parts. He advocated equal political rights for all men and was a great crusader of democracy. His radical views led to his imprisonment where he began his third literary work The Age of Reason, a bitter attack on Christianity. Revolutionary Poetry. A revolution naturally throws up poets whose verse thrives on the turbulent emotions of the revolutionaries. Ballads and political satires are the natural outcome of the outpouring of the passions of a people in revolt, and there was no dearth of these at this time. Yet there is also a record of some beautiful nature poems of Philip Freneau that touch the heart with their beauty and simplicity. Phillis Wheatley an African slave girl was one of the best known poets of the late eighteenth century. Having been taught to read and write by her mistress and given a glimpse of the classics of English, Greek and Latin literature, she was successful in writing volumes of verse in the style of the English poets whom she had studied. The beginning of American dramatic literature too belongs to the end of the eighteenth century. As a result of the plays of Shakespeare being performed in America, theatres had been built in New York, Philadelphia and Boston before the war. The first American plays too were performed during this period, and the first American novels also made their appearance at about the same time. Another important literary beginning was that of the periodical. Newspapers and magazines that contained essays, political letters, lampoons and even some poems began to appear. These were the beginnings of what today is popular and commonplace in the reading habits of most people. “We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness” (Jefferson, Declaration of Independence). These words that are the core of the American way of life were drafted by Thomas Jefferson. An extraordinary man, well read widely travelled with a wide variety of interests, Jefferson’s papers and addresses portray the power of a sharp incisive mind and the courage to voice his opinions. A reading of his autobiography gives no hint of the stature of the man in the politics of his nation or as the founder of the University of Virginia. Such was the humility of a man who was a writer, statesman, architect, lawyer and philosopher and is often considered the voice of the aspirations of a new nation. Having depended on books for his education and always eager to acquire more knowledge, his love of books is legendary. His books are a reflection of the breadth of Jefferson’s intellect and the vast scope of his interests. NINETEENTH CENTURY. The turn of the century was a time of rapid growth, expansion, development and great progress in all spheres of American life and so also in its literature. Before the century was a couple of decades old, it had produced some great writers in Cooper, Bryant and Poe. James Fenimore Cooper sometimes referred to as the American Scott, is regarded as the creator of the adventure novel in American literature. Cooper grew up in a little village on the edge of the western wilderness, where people were exposed to both the savage wildlife as well as the horrors of attacks by the Indians. Cooper’s natural talent for storytelling, aided by his boyhood memories, gave his tales of pioneer life the realistic aura that has made him so famous. His works of fiction are widely read and greatly appreciated, and for the modern reader are an eye opener to the days of peril and the patriotic fervor of the revolution. His most loved tales in the Leatherstocking series captured the imagination of readers the world over and were translated into a number of languages. Cooper’s contemporary William Cullen Bryant was a romantic nature poet at heart. His love of nature is the main theme of his poems and he is sometimes compared to Wordsworth, but his descriptions of nature are all unmistakably American. However it is the reflective poems that he wrote that have earned him lasting fame. Thanatopsis is considered one of his greatest poetical outpourings. He went on to study law, but his heart was in writing and he finally gave up practicing law and went on to become a journalist. He contributed many poems to the publications at which he worked and after he joined The New York Evening Post, his reputation as a leading journalist grew. Honored by his countrymen, he became a distinguished orator delivering some exceptional speeches at meetings to laud the work of writers like Cooper. At the age of seventy three he took up the task of translating Homer’s Iliad in blank verse and four years later he had published an excellent translation of both the Iliad and the Odyssey. The field of serious criticism was pioneered by Edgar Allan Poe, whose critical work was a landmark in the development of American literature. Although a writer, poet and critic, it is for his outspoken reviews that he is most well remembered. His writings that portray his vivid imagination drew equally lifelike word pictures of gruesome starvation or murder as of unknown lands and mysterious oceans. Some of his writings are analytical and appeal more to the intellect than to the emotions. He may therefore be considered the creator of the modern detective story. Above all he was a master storyteller able to produce through his portrayal of characters and scenery, the effect he wanted on the reader’s mind. As a poet, his poems reflect both music and poetry producing the effect of a haunting melody that is mostly melancholy. Concord, a village near Cambridge was the center of a group of New England leaders. The rise of a theological system called Unitarianism had replaced Calvinism as the faith of the majority of New Englanders. However, even the more liberal beliefs of Unitarianism seemed too rigid for people like Emerson. Ralph Waldo Emerson was a lecturer, poet and essayist and a leader of the Transcendentalist movement, - a movement that emphasized the inherent goodness that existed in nature and man. It believed that religious institutions were the cause of the corruption of an individual’s purity and each individual should have the independence to work and think individually. Emerson’s address at the Phi Beta Kappa Society of Harvard College, where he declared “A nation of men will for the first time exist, because each believes himself inspired by the Divine Soul which also inspires all men.” was an inspiration to the youth of the nation encouraging them to delve into the deeper perception of truth within themselves and not depend only on book learning (Emerson, The American Scholar 12). He warned the institutions of learning that they could only serve “when they aim not to drill but to create”, when they gathered knowledge from all over and “set the hearts of their youth on flame” (Emerson, The American Scholar 5). This address was a landmark and a beginning of the public lecture system known as lyceum that became extremely popular not just in America, but also in England and Scotland and in which Emerson was considered the most eminent speaker. His essays were mostly transcripts of his lectures and the ideas that he put forth were both intensely stimulating as well as thought provoking. Even today his fierce endorsement of independent thinking is a valuable guideline to the youth of every nation. His poems were abstract and intellectual, not easy to understand, but for all that they were original and had the same vitality as his discourses. Above all he was a proponent of the freedom of thought, opinion and expression for all mankind. Another thinker who belonged to Emerson’s transcendental group was Henry Thoreau. A nature lover first he was also a poet and a philosopher. A Harvard graduate, his particular interest lay in Greek studies at which he was exceptionally good. He spent two years in a cabin that he built on the shore of Walden Pond where he was happy to be one with nature, cultivating potatoes, beans and corn to enable him to subsist. His intimate knowledge of the woods and the creatures that lived in them brought him close to nature, and his Walden or Life in the Woods that is the result of his thoughts and experiences during these two years has become an American classic. He was misunderstood by most of his acquaintances and friends except his inner circle and hence only two of his books were published in his lifetime although his works were published in twenty volumes after his death. The literary tradition of America that began as an offshoot of English literature, went on through its political and religious development to include characteristics that are uniquely American, till today American literature has a separate tradition all its own. Thinkers like Emerson who believed in the spirit of individuality, have been the fountainhead of the creativity and independent thinking that characterizes the American people and their literature. It is probably this trait that has allowed us to open our minds and hearts to immigrants from all over the world who contribute in manifold ways to the development of our great country. Works Cited Bradstreet, Anne Religious Experiences 1678 page 8 The Works of Anne Bradstreet in Prose and Verse Web 30 May 2013 Anne Bradstreet was the first woman whose work was published in America. Her work documents the struggle that women faced in the first years of colonization. Anne Bradstreet’s poems reflect a deep spirituality and strong faith. A well educated woman, with a rich vocabulary, she was able to put into words her concept of the human mind and her belief in an eternal being through a process of reasoning. Her courage in being able to do so at a time when women were not allowed to speak their minds is exemplary. Emerson, Ralph The American Scholar By Ralph Waldo Emerson An oration delivered before The Phi Beta Kappa Society, at Cambridge August 31, 1837 page 5 web 26 May 2013 Emerson, Ralph The American Scholar By Ralph Waldo Emerson An oration delivered before The Phi Beta Kappa Society, at Cambridge August 31, 1837 page 12 web 26 May 2013 Ralph Waldo Emerson’s lecture delivered to the Phi Beta Kappa Society of Harvard College is a fine example of how he exhorted students not to be afraid to freely express their opinions and teachers to allow more creativity rather than only depend on the teachings of the works of bygone days. Above all his lectures and teachings emphasize the spark of divinity which was the fountainhead of all creativity in nature as well as in man. Franklin, Benjamin Benjamin Franklin: Glimpses of the Man n.d. web 26 May 2013 Franklin, Benjamin The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin 1784 Page 42 web 26 May 2013 Benjamin Franklin’s autobiography records his rise from humble beginnings and suggests that integrity and a moderation in the use of language, was the key to success. Humility and a willingness to listen to the viewpoints of others before taking action, in his view were what made him successful in influencing others and being able to win them over to his way of thinking. Jefferson, Thomas Declaration of Independence A Transcript 4 July 1776 web 26 May 2013 Thomas Jefferson, a brilliant political thinker and the third president of America is perhaps best known for his drafting of the Declaration of Independence. He was however a man with a wide variety of interests. His arguments for political and religious freedom as well as social justice and his strong faith in the democratic system of government form the backbone of America’s systems of governance even today. Mather, Cotton The Wonders of the Invisible World Page 154 The Trial of Martha Carrier August 9 1692 Web 30 May 2013 Cotton Mather’s writings about the witch trials at Salem in 1692 in his Wonders of the Invisible World, give a detailed account of how people believed in witchcraft to such an extent that they thought their illnesses were the result of witchcraft and were cured of any illnesses attributed to the evil witches once the witch was indicted. The stories that the witnesses at the trial related give a clear picture of the beliefs held in those times. Paine, Thomas The Crisis 23 December 1776 web 26 May 2013 Thomas Paine was at the helm of the American Revolution. His passionate writings and speeches were the vehicle that communicated the ideas of the Revolution to intellectuals as well as the common man. His published papers Common Sense that strongly urged independence and his American Crisis that inspired the army were widely read at the time and communicated his passionate plea for independence to one and all. Sewall, Samuel The Selling of Joseph A Memorial Page 1 n.d. web 26 May 2013 Samuel Sewall a deeply religious man and a prominent judge was one of the first to publish a public condemnation of slavery, and endorse the rights of all men irrespective of color to freedom to live as they desired. In his pamphlet The Selling of Joseph, he questions the very foundations of slavery and insists that all men have equal rights to liberty. He staunchly declares that God never intended any man to be a slave to another. Winthrop, John A Model of Christian Charity on board The Arbella 1630 web 31 May 2013 John Winthrop was the governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony and and before he sailed for America came from a well known and well off family with property in Suffolk. An educated and cultured man, he gave his first sermon on board the vessel that brought him to America where he exhorted his fellow passengers to brace themselves for the hardships that lay ahead of them. He pleaded with his fellow passengers to be patient, unselfish and brotherly in their affection and attitudes to one another. His firm belief that God was with them and would help them defeat their enemies is the recurring refrain of the sermon. Read More