Group Pressure upon the Modification and Distortion of Judgment - Research Paper Example

Group Pressure upon the Modification and Distortion of Judgment Concept Behavior therapies focus on the reinforcements and punishments people receive for maladaptive behavior and on altering them. However, response shaping through operant conditioning is also an effective tool and is a technique used in behavior therapy in which a person’s behavior problems are changed to desirable behaviors through operant conditioning. Attitudes and Cognitive Dissonance are the variables used in this hypothesis. The concept is that attitude is a learned behavior. The hypothesis is to show how they relate and influence each other. Social Psychology Social psychology is concerned with social influences upon the individual. Because it emphasizes the individual, it qualifies as psychology, yet because of its focus on the social situation it has much in common with sociology. Thus the general area where sociology and psychology overlap is called social psychology, although the topic involves far more than simply trying to find common ground between the two disciplines. Myers (1987) has identified three areas of consideration in social psychology: the way people think about one another, how they influence one another, and how they relate to one other. Attitudes Social psychologists are concerned not only with the formation of attitudes but also with how attitudes can be influenced and changed. An attitude is made up of thought, feeling, and a predisposition to act upon that thought and feeling. Sheer thought is the basis of an opinion. While thought and feeling may technically make up an attitude a third factor, behavior is likely to result. The credibility of the person attempting to change attitudes is an important factor in determining success. The perceived intentions of the communicator are especially important. If intentions are seen as positive, influence will tend to be greater. Some have debated whether one or two sided presentation are the most effective. Is it better to just present one side of an issue or to give both sides? Research to date indicates that the one-sided approach is more effective if the audience is unintelligent, authoritarian or already in agreement with the stated position. Generally, however, the two-sided approach works better because the presenter sounds more objective (Jones and Brehm, 1970). Cognitive Dissonance Cognitive dissonance is an inner tension resulting from the attempt to hold two contrasting thoughts at the same time (Festinger 1957). One of those thoughts may result from behavior therefore, if an attitude contradicts action, dissonance results. When dissonance occurs, the individual tries to relieve that tension by changing opinions, changing actions, or adding new ideas to thinking. Any of these will tend to nullify the cognitive dissonance and reduce tension over the issue. Case study Experiment Festinger demonstrated this concept by having people perform an extremely boring task (turning knobs a quarter –turn on a board). He asked each participant to convince another person, supposedly waiting to take part in the experiment, that it was an interesting task. At this point he offered either one or twenty dollars to the participant for convincing the other person the task would be interesting. Afterward he evaluated those who were paid to see whether they had enjoyed the knob-turning task. While behavioral psychology might suggest that the bigger reward would produce the greatest change, just the opposite occurred; those who received one dollar for lying the most positive about the boring task while those who received twenty dollars changed the least in their attitudes. Results Festinger concluded that the results were best explained by noting the dissonance between the task and what was told to the waiting person. When participants were paid twenty dollars there was not as much dissonance or tension between the genuine view that the task was boring and telling the other person it was interesting because they could rationalize that the lie was worth twenty dollars. On the other hand, those who only got one dollar did not have much justification for the lie, and thus changed their attitude from boredom to some degree of liking in order to relieve the dissonance. Social Influence Whether we like it or not, we influence others and, in return, are influenced by them. Americans, highly individualistic, often overlook the powerful influences of others; in contrast, cultures that are very group-oriented are more likely to affirm the power of the group (Meir, 1982 p.163 – 165). Literary Review on Behavior Therapies In this report we provide an overview of the techniques and efficacy of the two most commonly used in behavior therapies. Behavior therapies are the concept that behavior therapies focus on the reinforcement and punishments people receive for maladaptive behavior and on altering them. Verses the response shaping through operant conditioning which is a form of social skills training which has been useful in problems of interacting and communicating with others. The foundation for behavioral assessment of the client’s problem where the therapist works with the client to identify the specific circumstances that seems to elicit the client’s negative behavior or emotional responses. Attitudes are a part of credibility of the person attempting to change attitudes and are an important factor in determining success. Cognitive dissonance is an inner tension resulting from the attempt to hold two contrasting thoughts at the same time (Festinger 1957). Case Study Research & Hypothesis & Results Asch (1951) undertook a series of experiments to investigate the effects of group pressure. A subject entered a room with six other people, presumably fellow participants in the research project. The group was told that the subject of study was perception. Group members were instructed to compare three lines drawn on a card with a line drawn on another card. Then each person was asked which one of the three lines was the same length as the line on the second card. While one of the three lines was clearly the same length as the line on the second card, six people in the group gave the wrong answer (they had been previously told to do without the seventh person’s knowledge). Would the seventh person agree with the others, or give the correct answer? About one-third naïve individuals conformed t the other six. If the task was given seven different times, 80% conformed at least once, with additional experiments it was found that if the decision of the seventh subject was anonymous or if at least one other person has the right answer, there was far less conformity on the part of the seventh person. Fig. 1.1: Asch’s experiment - “Is A, B, D, the same length as C?” The Putney’s (1964) describe conformity as a form of normal neurosis, a psychological problem that is socially acceptable. They point out that the costs are very high for not conforming while the rewards are often slim; thus people tend not to question the assumptions of their culture. The Putney’s (1964) emphasize that Americans believe “adjustment” is the highest ideal – merely another word for conformity. While such neurosis is socially acceptable the Putney’s call for living above conformity is by expressing our true feelings rather than staying at a superficial level of communication. Group Think Social influence is also manifest in a phenomenon called groupthink, an extreme concern within a group that everyone reaches full agreement. As a result the group fails to evaluate ideas adequately because of the desire for agreement. This is most likely to occur in groups that are closely knit, where members feel the group cannot make a mistake, and when group members place too much confidence in leaders. The sense of agreement is only an illusion, however because ideas are never really evaluated; no one openly disagrees, and agreement is based upon lack of complete analysis (Janis, 1982). Inoculation Just as a vaccine, composed of a weakened form of a virus, can render a person physically immune to the full strength virus, so too a person can be given a weakened form of an idea, and be encouraged to formulate a strong refutation of that same point of view (McGuire 1964). Inoculation is basically a variation of the two sided approach mentioned earlier, the distinction being that the two sides are not given equal time and the person to be convinced does the refutation. Research shows that there is evidence that inoculation can influence opinions significantly (Batson, 1975). Social Loafing People tend to exert less effort when working with others and more effort when working alone. This is most likely to occur when the individual’s contribution is not obvious, as in the game of tug of war. Yet if others are made aware of what each person contributes, such as football players in a game, individual performance may be even greater in the group than when alone. Behavior Therapies Just as behavior theories of psychopathology are radically different from psychodynamic and humanistic theories, behavior therapies would seem to be the polar opposite of these other therapies. Whereas psychodynamic therapies focus on uncovering unconscious conflicts and relational issues that develop during childhood and humanistic therapies focus on helping the client discover the inner self, behavior therapies focus only on changing a person’s specific behaviors in the present day. Although there are many specific techniques for behavior change (see Concept Review) they can be grouped into two main categories: techniques that extinguish unwanted behaviors and techniques for teaching a person new, desired behaviors. Techniques for Extinguishing Unwanted Behaviors Systematic desensitization therapy is based on Mowrer’s (1939) two-factor model, which suggests that people develop fear and anxiety responses to previously neutral stimuli through classical conditioning. Then, through operant conditioning, they develop behaviors designed to avoid triggers for that anxiety. It is a gradual method for extinguishing anxiety responses to stimuli and the maladaptive behavior that often accompanies this anxiety. In systematic desensitization, the person first develops a hierarchy of feared stimuli, ranging from stimuli that would cause him or her only mild anxiety to stimuli that would cause severe anxiety or panic. Hierarchy of Fears for Snake Phobia This is a hierarchy of feared stimuli for a person with a snake phobia, ranging from the least feared stimulus to the most feared stimulus. 1. Hearing the word snake 2. Imagining a snake in a closed container at a distance 3. Imagining a snake uncontained at a distance 4. Imagining a snake nearby in a closed container 5. Looking at a picture of a snake 6. Viewing a movie or video of a snake 7. Seeing a snake in a container in the same room 8. Seeing a snake uncontained in the same room 9. Watching someone handle a snake 10. Touching a snake 11. Handling a snake 12. Playing with a snake Table 2 Source: Abnormal Psychology 3rd Edition Case Study A person with a snake phobia might generate the hierarchy in Table 2. Then the therapist would help the person proceed through this hierarchy, starting with the least feared stimulus. The person would be instructed to vividly imagine the feared stimulus or would even be exposed to the feared stimulus for a short period, while implementing relaxation exercises to control the anxiety. When the person gets to the point where he or she can imagine or experience the first and least feared stimulus without feeling anxious, the person moves on to the next most feared stimulus, imagining or experiencing it while implementing relaxation exercises. This proceeds until he or she reaches the most feared stimulus on the list and is able to experience this stimulus without feeling extremely anxious. Thus, by the end of systematic desensitization therapy, a person with a snake phobia should be able to pick up and handle a large snake without becoming very anxious (Follette & Hayes, 2000). Techniques for Learning Desirable Behaviors Response shaping through operant conditioning is also an effective tool in working with children who have behavior problems in the normal range for children. For example, suppose that a child tends to have tantrums in his school class. A behavior therapist might observed that the child initiates these tantrums when it appears he wants, but is not receiving, the teacher’s attention. The therapist might prescribe that the teacher put the child in a small, empty room for three or four minutes each time he begins to tantrum - in other words, to give the child a time – out. At the same time the therapist might train the child to ask the teacher to come and look at his drawing or other accomplishment in an appropriate manner, rather than to tantrum. At first, the child may use these new communication skills poorly, but even a minor attempt at using them instead of tantruming would be rewarded by the teacher’s attention over time. Only completely appropriate communications with the teacher would be rewarded. This is a form of social skills training, which has been adapted to help people with a variety of problems in interacting and communicating with others. Conclusion The individual is powerfully affected by others. Social psychology underscores the great importance groups have in our lives. That influence is pervasive and must not be overlooked as we examine all of the other areas of psychology. Behavior therapies have proven effective for a wide range of emotional problems, especially anxiety and behavior problems, particularly in children (Thorpe & Olson, 1997). Few therapist use only behavioral strategies, however many combine behavioral strategies with cognitive strategies. Appendix – Glossary Aversion Therapy Treatment that involves the pairing of unpleasant stimuli with deviant or maladaptive sources of pleasure in order to induce an aversive reaction to the formerly pleasurable stimulus Behavior Therapies Is therapies that focus on changing a person’s specific behaviors by replacing unwanted behaviors with desired behaviors. Behavioral Assessment In behavior therapy is the therapist’s assessment of the client’s adaptive and maladaptive behaviors and the triggers for these behaviors. Case Study An in depth account of a given individual. Cognition Both the process of knowing and the product of the act of knowing. Cognitive Dissonance Inner tension resulting from the attempt to hold two contrasting thoughts at the same time. Communication The process by which individuals give and receive cognitive and other information Control Group The norm or standard against which observations of the experimental group are compared. Flooding behavioral technique in which a client is intensively exposed to a feared object until the anxiety diminishes. Groupthink Extreme concern within a group that everyone reaches full agreement. Hypothesis A tentative idea which is tested for its agreement with known facts. Implosive Therapy See flooding Inoculation A process in which an individual is presented with a weakened form of an idea and is then asked to give a strong refutation of it. In vivo Exposure Technique of behavior therapy in which clients are encouraged to experience those stimuli that they fear directly. Modeling The process of learning behaviors by imitating others, especially authority figures or that like oneself. Operant Conditioning Form of learning in which behaviors lead to consequences that either reinforce or punish the organism, leading to an increased or a decreased probability of a future response. Psychology The scientific study of the behavior and thinking of organisms. Response Shaping Technique used in behavior therapy in which a person’s behavior problems are changed to desirable behaviors through operant conditioning Role Play Technique used in behavioral therapy in which the client and the therapist take on the roles of people involved with the client’s maladaptive behaviors; the therapist observes the client’s behavior in the role-play to assess what aspects of that behavior need to change. Social Loafing Phenomenon in which people tend to exert less effort when working with others in contrast to more effort when working alone. Social Skills Training Technique often used in behavior therapy to help people with problems in interacting and communicating with others. Systematic Desensitization Therapy Is type of behavior therapy that attempts to reduce client anxiety through relaxation techniques and progressive exposure to feared stimuli. Theory A prevailing concept that guides research. References Asch, S. (1951). Effects of group pressure upon the modification and distortion of judgment. In Groups, Leadership and men, Ed. H. Guetzkow. Pittsburgh: Carnegie Batson, C. (1975). Rational Processing or Rationalization? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 32; 176-84 Bolt, M., and D. Myers (1984). The Human Connection. Downers Grove: Inter-Varsity. Festinger, L. (1957). A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Follett, W.C., & Hayes, S.C. (2000). Contemporary behavior therapy. In C.R. Snyder & R.E. Ingram (Eds.), Handbook of psychological change: Psychotherapy processes and practices for the 21st century pp 381-408. New York: Wiley Janis, I. (1982) Groupthink. 2nd Ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Jones, R., and J. Brehm. 1970. Persuasiveness of one and two sided communications. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology (6) 42-56. Mcguire, W. (1964). Inducing resistance to persuasion. In Advances in Experimental Psychology, ED. L. Berkowitz. New York: Academic Myer, D. 1990). Social Psychology. 3rd Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. Meier, Paul, D., Minirth, Frank, B., Wichern, Frank B., Ratcliff, Donald E., (1991) Baker Books 2nd Ed Introduction to Psychology and Counseling. Thorpe, G.L., & Olson, S.L. (1997). Behavior therapy: concepts, procedures, and applications (2nd Ed.) Boston, MA: Allyn &Bacon. Read More