Factors That Contribute to Incarceration Rates - Essay Example

What Factors Contribute Dramatically to Incarceration Rates? Introduction As of 2008, the United s have the highest incarceration rate around the world, with 751 imprisoned people for every 100,000 people. For comparison, the second country that follows is Russia, with 627 prisoners for every100,000 people. It is interesting to note that the United States has less than 5% of the world’s population, but 23.4% of the world’s incarcerated population. Furthermore, there are over 7.3 million people on probation, in jail or on parole, representing 3.2% of American adult residents, or 1 in every 31 adults. In the same year, there are 2,304,115 incarcerated in jails, and 92,854 in juvenile facilities ("Inmate Count Dwarfs Other Nations"). With such high incarceration rates, it is important to look for the reasons behind these great numbers. Such factors that will be considered to influence incarceration rates are education, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, as well as military service history. We will also look at factors already related to incarceration, such as failure to reintegration after release, and parental imprisonment as affecting juveniles. Factors to Consider Researchers first point at the influence of demographic factors on incarceration. Stephens et al. undertook a two-year study of 233 male inmates in Georgia, to know what demographic traits predict incarceration. They found that education and race/ethnicity affected incarceration, as 37.5% of respondents did not finish high school, and African American males 2.6 times more likely than Whites (7). This is similar with Dannerbeck’s 2005 finding that 62% of 912 juvenile delinquents were African American, and of the 31% with history of parental incarceration, 70% are African American (199). In 2000, Wester and Wildeman found that about 1.2% of white children had a father in prison, compared to 3.5% for Hispanics, and 10.4% for African Americans (233). Wester & Wildeman also observed that incarceration rate is twice as high for white males with only a high school education, with one in five of non-college black men incarcerated as well. The authors suggest that those unable to hold steady jobs because of lack of skills and training, and enter steady relationships are more likely to be involved in criminal behavior. This correlation between education and incarceration risk is detailed further, when comparing high school graduates and dropouts, the latter sample are 60-70% likely to go to prison (231). In fact, when considering ethnicity, black men are more likely to have prison records than to carry a bachelor’s degree (232). Furthermore, the authors mention that incarceration became prevalent in low-education African American males by the 1990s, as, in 1999, 30% of non-college African American males had been through incarceration. African American males are entering prisons at a faster rate than they are pursuing college degrees ("Study finds big increase in Black men as inmates since 1980"). This may be because of the lack of employment opportunities for most African Americans, compared with whites. This speaks of the racial discrimination that is still widespread in most societies, leaving blacks mostly at a disadvantage for better careers. The unemployment rate for Black men ages 15-19 is twice (30.1%) that of White men (14.1%), for ages 20-24, there are 18.0% unemployed Black males compared to 6.7% of White men. To add to that is the decreasing need for labor given present financial crises, and competition for jobs is tighter, and with lack of sufficient training and education, people lose the chance for better futures (Marbley and Ferguson 634). On the socioeconomic aspect, poverty also contributes to increased possibility of incarceration. O’Flaherty in 1996 found through surveys that 40 – 80% of shelter users or homeless males have actually been in jail (127). This may be because of laws that forbid sleeping or loitering in public places, forcing homeless people to be incarcerated. It is as John Irwin in 1986 defines as ‘rabble management’, where homeless people are seen as offensive for their situation, as the sleep, drink, urinate, in public, and it is in the interest of public order that police take them in (Gowan 520). Especially for cities with a large tourism market, such as San Francisco, homeless people are targeted by mostly the tourism sector, as with hotel and shop owners. The disadvantage of such direct imprisonment is that the homeless are never given the opportunity for training or employment, that even if they get out of the prison, they go back to lives on the street. Furthermore, being homeless increases chances of incarceration because of being in geographic areas inclined with crime, such as in places where there is a concentration of ghettos, cheap hotels, and institutions that serve welfare, probation, and parole (Vergara 127), as homeless are generally driven away from wealthier locations. Gowan mentions that homeless men with no criminal histories are pulled into prison culture by the people they are around with in shelters and soup kitchens. Some have been pressured into illegal acts, making them victims of criminal people (523). In addition, there is also the possibility that unfavorable labor opportunities lead people to crimes of desperation, starting with something as simple as shoplifting, leading to substance abuse, drug dealing and stealing (517). It gives attention to punishment of poor people that it is only because of their status that they are pushed to lives of crime or just directly placed in prisons. There is also the possibility of veterans being more at risk of incarceration than nonveterans. Greenberg et al in 2007 mentions the rising concern of the effects of serving in the military with the well being of veterans since the Vietnam War, one of which is the risk of incarceration (337). Researchers point out that these people, mostly males, have a difficult time adjusting to life after service, as veterans are known to be unemployed or unemployed, experience alienation, and social isolation (Boivin 117). With prevalent illnesses such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and substance abuse, among others, these are factors of increased risk of imprisonment. In addition are the possibilities that being witness to combat increases this risk, with the exposure to violent acts, hostility and antisocial behavior. Greenberg et al interviewed 18,326 US inmates, finding that most of incarcerated veterans were between the ages of 35 to 44, with most serving during the World War II and Korean and Vietnam campaigns (342). Blacks were more prevailing than other ethnicity groups, such as Hispanics and Whites. Nevertheless, there is a greater risk ratio for white veterans in the aforementioned age range, and the authors reason that this was the time of the All Volunteer Force (AVF), when volunteers were relied on by the government, in the expense of lesser quality in the service (343). By this, it is shown that these volunteers had lower socioeconomic status compared with nonveterans, had inferior intellectual-aptitude test scores, were most likely not high school graduates, and had more issues with substance abuse. Data from the 1980 Epidemiologic Catchment Area (ECA) show that post-Vietnam, white veterans were more likely to have psychiatric problems, substance abuse, and antisocial personality disorder (Rosenheck et al 467). In addition, these white veteran males were less well off compared with their nonveteran peers, and this status discrepancy may increase the risk for the white males for incarceration. In contrast, blacks and Hispanic veterans were less represented in the prison population as expected, implying that they actually benefited from the service, such as the opportunity for education and training, as military service is said to be beneficial for the minorities as the men were provided more resources, and the experience to work in a large organization with those of the same racial/ethnic groups (Cooney et al. 60). In fact, data from 2002 of the Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Personnel and Readiness, shows that 85% of white recruits had a general equivalency diploma or had finished high school, while only 74% of African Americans, and 60% of Hispanics had these qualifications. This further shows that military experience was beneficial for these groups, and so explains the racial difference in incarceration rates (Greenberg et al 345). Being unable to reintegrate is also a cause for increased likelihood for further incarceration. Society puts a stigma on these past convicts, and they are denied high-paying jobs, and even lose their right to vote. The government is tasked to establish such programs, but an important factor to consider is the funding that will support these programs. Education and health services must be met first, but given the trend of lack of funds, welfare programs for out of jail people are sacrificed. Nevertheless, communities must be aware that in the long run, having more people in the workforce in better than having crowded prisons, as instead of spending an estimated $60,000 per inmate per year, this is income that can potentially be earned by the same individuals, contributing positively to the economy instead (Marbley & Ferguson 639). This inability to integrate to normal life after incarceration may also lead to further incarceration, as having a criminal past creates barriers to most employment and even the formation of new personal relationships, leading these people back to a life of crime. Furthermore, parental incarceration may also contribute to factors that influence juvenile imprisonment. Dannerbeck in 2005 found that among 1,112 youth juveniles, 31% had one parent imprisoned at some time (199). The author hypothesized that these parents may have lower levels of effective parenting, and have greater inclination to substance abuse and psychological illnesses, which may interfere with their parenting responsibilities. Also, psychologist Bandura in 1977 suggests that through observations, the child may imitate observed behaviors as their own (Dannerbeck 200). Since the children are let on their own when their parent(s) is away, there is a further loss of a positive role model. Eddy & Reid supports this with the finding that children with incarcerated parents were 3 to 6 times more likely to be delinquent. Experiences of child abuse and/or negligence from previously incarcerated parents, contribute to this (Dannerbeck 200). Dannerbeck mentions that there is no system present that would consider the status of children of incarcerated parents, possibly contributing to further delinquency. Of course, this is dependent on the age of the child, parental relationship prior to incarceration, living arrangements during incarceration, and the reforming of relationships after incarceration. Furthermore, other researchers support this, that those entering prison cause their children, family and community to be vulnerable, defenseless, and impoverished (Marbley & Ferguson 634). In addition, the loss of relationships after being released from prison may also increase the risk of recidivism. Difficulty in maintaining close relationships with children may be a factor that pushes past-convicts to domestic violence and depression, leading on to employment issues, renewed criminal acts, and continued substance abuse. Harman et al in their study learned that incarcerated men wanted to be involved in their children’s lives, but were unable to do so because they lost their credibility and ability to be a role model for their children (804). In fact, women reported that their children saw their incarcerated fathers as merely business associates, or family friend, as the women were uncomfortable in permitting the father to having a parental role (804). Ultimately, this suggests that adults with a past of incarceration are less likely to reside with their children, compared with those without a criminal past (London 788). Several studies also mention that low-income women tend not to consider incarcerated males as suitable spouses because of the potential of recidivism, limited employment and income potential, concerns on continued substance use, violence, and worries on the well-being of their (potential) children (London 789). Furthermore, London found that having a history of incarceration is correlated with living alone, as a single parent, or with other family but no spouse, partner, or child (787). It is also correlated with lower marriage rates, since attitudes and behaviors that are most detrimental to marriage become incarcerated, those with a history of such acts are unable to maintain stable relationships and have children. In fact, London’s study found that more than 1 in 5 people who were previously incarcerated reported to live alone. It speaks of the stressful experience that incarceration is, especially for the family members of the incarcerated person. Resilient relationships may give emotional support, but most often, the strain actually ends the relationships (805). Partners who are left outside for a length of time may change and grow into new lives, forgetting past mates. This may be influenced by the fact that women who ‘lost’ their partners in prison were not shown sympathy or support, leading them to start better relationships instead. In addition is the 5 to 6 times higher risk of HIV infection for inmates, and potential spouses see this as a deterring factor in considering their mates. In fact, Leh found that many of those returning from prisons are unaware of their HIV status, possibly destroying the relationships that they were able to maintain during incarceration (795). As a matter of fact Harman et al found that women often do not consider themselves at risk for HIV as a result of their mate’s incarceration, and other women actually believed that men were cleaner after incarceration because of the lack of women in the prison (794). Continued use of illegal substances is also an issue within relationships, directing to an increased risk for recidivism and lack of decision-making skills (809). The guilt that incarcerated people feel of having caused much hardship to their families is also a factor to consider that may affect the challenge of reintegrating into society. As Harman et al found, despite some freed men who were determined to establish their selves financially before entering relationships, they were discouraged because of prejudices against their criminal records, and they are unable to qualify for welfare assistance, food allowance, or reduced-cost housing, and, as mentioned, they had a difficulty in getting legitimately employed as well (802). Faced with such disappointment, and the pressure put on them by partners, these men minimized their emotional dependency and maintained single lives until they are able to establish themselves. Or if separation from their partners is not the case, most men became dependent on their partners for support, and with this follow emotional withdrawal (809). In addition to the pressure put upon incarcerated males to become more stable, unable to do so, they return to drug dealing and other criminal acts. The anxiety that men face with the idea of reintegration, coupled with the lack of proper and effective coping skills, causes men to be pessimistic, dysphoric, and partake in risky health behaviors instead, which may cause them to return once more to imprisonment (809). This reflects social isolation, lack of integration, inability to integrate into normative parenting tasks, and higher risk of recidivism, and may be a factor for a multitude of health and well-being problems, all of which may contribute to the risks that lead them to go back to lives of crime. Conclusion As can be seen, lack of education and racial discrimination are hand in hand in the risk for incarceration. The possession of the right skills and training and being knowledgeable of the society’s laws, are vital for one’s growth and development. Without these, people lose the opportunity to be successful and lead effective lives. Coupled with the rampant racial discrimination and the apparent lack of further education for African Americans and other minorities, this further stresses the role of race as a possible determinant for incarceration. One’s socioeconomic status also may lead to an increased chance of incarceration, as those in poverty and thus homeless are a huge part of the prison population. They are imprisoned for their status of being homeless, for the public interest, that sleeping on the streets and doing other private acts in public are grounds for incarceration. Nevertheless, lack of financial means also lead them to lives of crime, that may start from petty crimes such as shoplifting a tube of toothpaste, to violent robbery acts. Being forced to areas that are already rampant with crimes may also turn the homeless but kind people, into criminals as a result of peer pressure or being around already unlawful people. Service in the military may also cause incarceration, because of the exposure to violence, the higher risk of psychiatric disorders and illnesses, and the failure of coping with normal lives after service. Finally, the greatest risk for incarceration comes from those with a history of imprisonment, especially with the inability to reintegrate with their past lives, from reuniting with past relationships, holding parental responsibilities, and establishing themselves independently, which all brings great strain and anxiety to the person, increasing their risk for recidivism. This is in addition to the influence of incarcerated parents on their children, as juvenile delinquents have unfavorable role models that lead them to being imprisoned themselves. These are the factors considered to greatly influence incarceration rates, and should be given attention to if the prison population is desired to be decreased anytime soon. Works Cited Bandura, Albert. Social learning theory. 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