Crime As A Social Rather Than Individual Phenomenon - Essay Example

CRITICALLY EXAMINE HOW "DURKHEIM" AND LATER CRIMINOLOGISTS HAVE EXPLAINED CRIME AS A SOCIAL RATHER THAN INDIVIDUAL PHENOMENON Emile Durkheim expounded the proposition that within any society crime was functional and normal. He believed that without some level of crime society would cease to exist. He claimed that crime was functional as it helped to reinforce social norms as well as provide the impetus for social change. He felt that crime was a way of expressing social discontent in which those who were discontented would express their feelings through disobedience of the law. Durkheim criticised the theory of natural crime that was proffered by Garafalo during his investigation into the causes of crime. Matza (1969) argued that when social control is weakened adolescents drift towards delinquent subcultures that lie between convention and crime. Throughout his studies on crime Durkheim refers to social integration, anomie and imitation as a way of defining deviance and order. The theory of sociological positivism puts forward the notion that people can be predisposed to crime as a result of societal factors such as poverty, poor education, or belonging to certain subcultures. Many criminologists have analysed the effect of society on crime. Adolphe Quetelet examined statistical analysis and data on crime to try to gain an insight into the relationship between society and crime. His research highlighted that factors such as poverty, education, and gender and alcohol consumption could all be linked to crime. Crowded cities have also been blamed for an increase in crime. Rawson W Rawson attempted to link population density with crime through the analysis of crime statistics. In a series of volumes written by Henry Mayhew entitled London Labour and the London Poor an ethnographic approach was used to study the link between poverty and crime. In order to compile his studies Mayhew went into the poorest parts of London and spoke directly to his subjects. In his publications he wrote about the conditions of their daily life and transcribed many of their utterances into his work. In the 4th volume of his work he analysed the activities of criminals and their characteristics. To demonstrate the societal effect on criminal behaviour he concentrated on the illiteracy of his subjects, the numbers of illegitimate children in the locality, teenage marriage and the volume of crime committed by women. When conducting this particular survey Mayhew travelled around Britain visiting the poorest areas of each of the counties he travelled to. His results were represented on a map with areas shaded black showing areas were criminality was above average and areas in white were below the average. The conclusion he drew from his research was that there was a link between urbanisation, poverty and disease and criminal activity. The notion that crime is influenced by societal factors stems from the positivist revolution in 1876. The positivist approach focuses on biological, psychological or social constraints rather than assuming that the criminal is rational and has free will and choice. By doing this criminals became to be identified as a special class of person. The aim of this approach was to produce a causal theory behind the problem of crime. During the mid nineteenth century Dr Benedict Morel suggested that crime was linked to degeneracy. In his work he traced the increase in crime to unwholesome living quarters, drugs, alcohol and adulterated foods as well as disease. He felt that this degeneracy was producing an epidemic of moral and physical decay that was transmitted from parent to child. Although Morel attempted to shift the responsibility for criminal activities in this manner he still held to the opinion that criminals have a choice. Lombrosso was convinced that criminals could be identified by basic traits. This was challenged by people such as Lacassagne who advanced the opinion that crime was mainly caused by social problems. He is quoted as famously saying that ‘societies have the criminals they deserve’. Matza (1969) attempted to identify deviance in criminals in his book Becoming Deviant. In this book he claimed that there are 3 major phases by which deviance could be traced, these were appreciation of the deviant, diversity replacing human pathology and erosion of the divide between conventional and deviant. Using the notion of appreciation of the deviant Matza claimed that from the viewpoint of a sociologist bad things come from bad conditions. It was believed that if this assertion was found to be true that eradication of the bad conditions would stop bad things from happening. This narrow view refused to accept that evil could arise from good things. Shaw and McKay (1942) advanced the theory of social disorganisation as being responsible for the increase in crime. The theory follows the notion that neighbourhoods that are economically deprived or in severe poverty have higher turnover rates in the turnover of the occupants living there. It is argued by McKay and Shaw that this turnover of residents means that a social structure cannot properly develop resulting in a lack of social order. The high turnover of residents means that it is hard to establish relationships with ones neighbours and as such the sense of community is lost with everyone looking out for themselves. In areas where the population is more stable communities tend to develop with neighbourhood watch schemes establishing thereby preventing criminals from being able to thrive. Studies carried out since the 1970’s have centred on social disorganisation and have concluded that high crime rates are associated with poverty, high numbers of empty buildings and deterioration in the community itself. It was suggested by Wilson that a poverty ‘concentration effect’ may cause neighbourhoods to become prone to violence. Merton (1938; 1957) has suggested that if the social structure for opportunities is unequal some people will resort to crime to achieve the same financial status of those who do have the opportunity to better themselves, whilst others may join gangs or become drug users. This has become known as the strain theory for criminal behaviour. Hirschi (1969) has argued that social control can prevent people from becoming criminals. He believed that attachment to others, a belief in moral validity of rules, commitment to achievement and involvement in conventional activities would prevent people from becoming criminals. He stated that the more of these features a person possessed the less likely they were to become criminals. Hirschi’s theory was that a person with low self control was more likely to have criminal tendencies than someone with high self control. In some ways Hirsch’s theory moves away from the social phenomenon and promotes the idea of an individual being responsible for their own actions. Hirschi also felt that parentage played a big part in the development of the child and influenced whether the child would resort to a criminal lifestyle. He believed that delinquent children were not created just through low socio-economic status but where more likely to not become delinquent according to the parental control exerted on them. Bourguignon (1998) argued that inequalities in communities are the cause of criminality. He stated that ‘Too much relative poverty causes some individuals to get into crime’. It would appear from the above that more and more people are of the opinion that crime levels are part of a social phenomenon rather than an individual one. Disorder theories expounded by Wilson and Kelling (1982) and Skogan (1990) suggest that areas with multiple problems such as litter and graffiti, broken windows and boarded up properties are more prone to criminal activities. Criminals often see this neglect of the neighbourhood as a sign that residents in these areas have lost control over the neighbourhood either through apathy or through fear of standing up to the criminals. Crime is often rife in such areas as the criminals expect little or no opposition to their criminal activities. Studies carried out by Taylor et al (1985) in Baltimore revealed that the greater the problem in respect of graffiti and damaged properties in the area the more likelihood of a substantial increase in crime. Sampson and Raudenbush (1999) found that there was a higher level of robberies and homicides in Chicago in areas that were more run down and dilapidated. Various criminologists discovered that certain crimes appear to be more prevalent according to the social climate of the area. Drug dealing and harassment was more likely to occur in neighbourhoods were littering was a particular feature (Perkins, Wandersman, Rich & Taylor (1993). In a series of studies carried out were members of the general public were asked whether they believed that the condition of the neighbourhood influenced the level of crime in that area. The results appeared to suggest that many did believe that the neighbourhood condition did have an impact on crime levels. However, the tests were carried out on those who had already been a victim of crime and when asked whether they felt the condition of the area had impacted on the chances of crimes being committed, most could recall that there had been particular problems with litter or graffiti in the area (Borooah and Carcach (1997); Rountree, Land, and Miethe (1994); Skogan (1990), for. Based on the suggestion by the person carrying out the survey they developed the notion that the crime was more likely to have been committed because of the disorder in the neighbour. The conclusion that can be drawn from the above is that although many except the notion that crime is a social phenomenon rather than an individual phenomenon their perception of this is clouded by the fact that there are very few areas were some form of problem such as litter or graffiti are not present. Low crime levels in less dishevelled areas of the country enhance the notion that crime is related to the state of the neighbourhood. Criminologists have also concluded that weak social ties lead to crime (Wilson & Kelling 1982). Others have concluded also that weaker social ties increase the vulnerability to becoming a victim of crime (Sampson & Groves ,1989; Bellair (1997); Warner & Rountree (1997) Bibliography Bellair, P.E., 1997. 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Neighborhood-level links between physical features and local sentiments: Deterioration, fear of crime, and confidence. Journal of Architectural Planning and Research 2, pp. 261–275. Wilson, J.Q. and Kelling, G.L., 1982. Broken windows. Atlantic Monthly 211, pp. 29–38. London Labour and the London Poor: A Cyclopaedia of the Condition and Earnings of Those That Will Work, Those That Cannot Work, and Those That Will Not Work [1861]. (New York: A.M. Kelley, 1967). Read More