Economic Opportunities Available for African American Women - Essay Example

? How Racial and Gender Discrimination has Adversely Reduced the Economic Opportunities Available for African-American Women Matthew Hodgert JS 114-39/20/12 Dr. Claudio Vera Sanchez San Jose State University Introduction The concept of racial and gender inequalities sheds light on the relationship among gender, race, and discrimination in the United States. Various people of different ethnic backgrounds have been subjected to different forms of discrimination based on skin color. Racial discrimination has led to increased levels of poverty amongst certain communities. Although Native Americans often face racial discrimination, non-Native Americans are the most affected people group, especially African-Americans. Both males and females of African ancestry often face discrimination in different aspects of their lives, ranging from educational opportunities to provision of healthcare services and employment in the labor market. Extensive research has been conducted to shed more light on various impacts of racial and gender discrimination, such as low self-esteem, poor performance of students at schools and employees at the workplace, as well as and low economic growth and development. Blacks also have greater health issues such as prolonged depression, increased suicides, more AIDS and a reduced sense of personal achievement, along with a much higher death rate for many of the leading causes of premature demise (Williams 2001). Many research studies have also been conducted to determine the best possible solutions to solve problems related to these effects of discrimination. However, very little research has ever been conducted to determine how racial and gender discrimination has adversely affected the economic capabilities of African-American women. With this in mind, this research study hypothesizes that gender and race are the major sources of discrimination and have the most difficult effects on the economic capabilities of African-American women. In the study, a sample of 600 women of African origin will be studied; the results will be analyzed in order to give a final conclusion. Importance of this Research Various research studies on gender differences in labor market outcomes have unadventurously focused on gender-specific factors, with an emphasis on gender differences in labor market qualifications and discrimination. A new aim of recent research studies by economists studying the labor market has been to determine the implications of racial discrimination for victims and other members of that particular race. For example, racial discrimination against African-Americans is known to reduce possibilities of employment in many multinational organizations. Furthermore, previous studies have found that discrimination mostly results from gender differences, amongst other factors. However, these past research studies have failed to determine the various effects of racial and gender discrimination on economic opportunities available to African-American women. Therefore, there is a great need to study the adverse effects of discrimination on economic opportunities available to African-American women. Sellers and Shelton (2008) argue that African-American women are at greater risk of gender discrimination due to social stereotypes, unequal income distribution, limited rights to productive inputs, such as credit facilities or financial loans, property ownership, and management of earned income as well as other race-related biases. By definition, racial discrimination refers to an act of maltreating an individual or a group of individuals based on their race. For example, an African-American woman may not be warmly welcomed in activities of a local church that is dominated by white Americans due to her skin color. Puhl et al.’s (2008) definition of racial discrimination usually includes distinction, restriction, or preference of an individual based on his or her skin color, race, or ethnic origin. This paper aims to examine what the effects of discrimination based on gender and race is like for African-American women and their ability to earn income. By doing so, I will expand on the traditional analysis of economic opportunities available to women of foreign origin in the United States. Thesis Statement Discrimination has been a serious issue within most ethnic communities in the United States. At one point in time or another, an individual has been exposed to racial or gender discrimination. In the U.S., African-Americans are believed to be the most affected race based on discrimination. Talaska et al. (2008) and Brown and Tylka (2011) state that the major causes of discrimination are social stereotypes that people develop towards members of a particular community or ethnic background. In addition to discrimination based on race, it has also been widely documented that women are generally more prone to any form of discrimination than men are. Most women tend to have a higher rate of unemployment and have trouble finding high-paying jobs. According to Reitz (2010), few women receive salaries the same as their male counterparts. Such discrimination has sparked strong debates on negative effects of discrimination, both race and gender, against women. In this study, researchers will focus mainly on the economic capability of African American women and how racial and gender discrimination affect that. Literature Review Almost every research study conducted on racial discrimination in the United States indicates that African-Americans as a whole are quite probably the most affected people of discrimination. Further, African-American women have suffered worse than the men. Although Black women constitute half of the African-American workforce, their salary range is only 89% of their male counterparts and have traditionally held menial jobs such as maids, cooks, and seamstresses (Hughes 1997). a. Race Research studies have been carried out in various fields, such as education, employment opportunities, access to loans and mortgages, and police treatment. Previous studies have shown that African-Americans, both male and female, often receive worse treatment than their Native American counterparts. Both races have suffered horrendous actions throughout the history of European-settled North America and it is true that the Indians have been and continue to be forced to reside on poverty stricken reservations, whereas Blacks have enjoyed relative freedom of movement. Yet even Professor Berger (2009), herself an American Indian, admits that although racially mistreated, the Native American’s racism has been far different than that of the African-American. At times Indians have even been thought of as “white” and while black-white marriage has long been a matter of contention and even life and death, Indian-white intermarriage was not only sanctioned but also encouraged by Congress! b. Gender A research study by renowned economist Berta Esteve Volart concluded that discrimination of women in the labor market has adverse damaging implications on their economic capability (Jager, 2011). The research included an examination of national data on labor market composition from seven states in America between 2003 and 2009. The research revealed that racial discrimination against African-American women has hindered them from employment opportunities, hence reducing their economic development. The notion behind this result is that discrimination of most African-American women has forced them to face numerous barriers that have held them back from gaining economic independence. Racial discrimination also leads to insufficient utilization of various talents possessed by African-American women, hence hindering their economic development (Alfred, 2007; Utsey, Bolden, & Williams, 2007). At the same time, various social norms and stereotypes make it difficult for women to fully explore their economic opportunities. Most African-American women have also faced racial and gender discrimination in relation to access to educational opportunities. This has resulted in low levels of education among African-American women. This further reduces their chances of getting high-paying jobs, hence further hindering their economic power. Past research studies have also indicated that women have little or no share in family earnings. According to Gordon (2011), the economic cost of racial and gender discrimination against black women in the United States is high. Gordon (2011) further explains that a 15 percent increase in female-to-male ratio in the labor market will increase the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita by two percent. Generally, African-American women face relatively large barriers in gaining economic opportunities due to gender discrimination. Statistical data from the International Labor Organization (ILO) for 2008 shows that the average percentage of female workers is less than 25 percent in the 30 most developed nations (International Labor Organization, 2008). In America, this rate is lower than 18 percent. Moreover, women usually have restricted access to the formal labor market. According to Cynthia and Brian (2009), most employers often choose to discriminate against women if they come from an African-American background. Although unequal gender participation within the labor market has been studied many times before, economic implications of this are yet to be fully researched. This will be the first study to look at the aggregate economic costs of discrimination due to race and gender. Donner (2010) also found that most African-American women are not allowed to work outside the house; this makes them even more vulnerable. In addition, black women were also found to carry the burden of household chores. If household work and other related chores were shared equally between men and women, women would have a better chance to engage in economic activities. Consequently, their economic power would increase. In addition, husbands often have power over their wives and act as the decision makers of the family. Black women are rarely given equal opportunities to attain education. According to Gondwe (2006), most traditional roles of men and women have hindered the participation and ability of women to engage in more economic activities. Because of discrimination based on race and gender in the workplace, African-American women have not been given equal opportunities for career growth and development, thus women have been earning low salaries that inhibit their chances of growing economically. More recently, economists and social researchers have paid greater attention to the impact of racial discrimination on the empowerment of women. Adequate evidence supports the notion that racial and gender discriminations have adversely affected the performance of women as well as their economic capability. However, these studies have not elaborated on the economic capability of African-American women, who are more vulnerable than white American women. Given that experiences of a particular gender or race may reflect different contexts in success, there is a need to conduct research that investigates the economic capability of African-American women. Gaps in Previous Research Studies Previous studies have generalized discrimination of women in society. Research has left a big gap between the economic capabilities of African-American women and Native American women. Previously, most researchers have assumed that all women, regardless of their racial origin, face similar challenges. However, this is not true. This is because people of different racial origins or ethnic backgrounds often have different circumstances, situations, and characteristics. Most African-American women face more challenges than their Native American counterparts. This situation has been fueled by cultural and traditional beliefs of most Africans. Research Hypothesis According to Nadin (2009), no law has ever attempted to accurately identify the exact definition of gender discrimination. However, for this research, gender discrimination can be defined as the unfair treatment of females compared to males. Generally, women have been subjected to gender discrimination more often than men. Although the gap has been narrowing steadily over the last thirty years, research still shows women as a whole lag behind men in weekly earnings. Broken down by race figures show African American Women are only slightly above Latino women and only make about 74% of what white women do (DOL 2011). This research study hypothesizes that African-American women have fewer economic opportunities than Native American women due to increased racial and gender discrimination. Economic opportunities available for African-American women are the dependent variable, while racial and gender discrimination are the independent variables. Research Methodology This research study will use a survey of 600 African-American women, chosen at random for sampling. If they volunteer (i.e. respond positively to invitations via email), close-ended questionnaires will be administered to determine whether participants have ever faced any form of racial or gender discrimination in the past. Participants who have faced racial or gender discrimination before will also be asked to elaborate how such discrimination may have affected their economic capability; for example, employment at a high-paying job. Those who have never faced any direct discrimination based on their race or gender will be asked to give their views, if any, about the possible implications of racial and gender discrimination on their access to economic opportunities. In addition to the administration of questionnaires, researchers will also interview participants to obtain first-hand information on the research topic. Recruitment of Participants Participants will be recruited randomly without a prior check of their current economic statuses. This will help to ensure that both successful and unsuccessful African-American women are included in the study. One stipulation is that all participants must be women of African-American origin. After recruitment, participants will be divided into groups of 50. Members of each group will then discuss their past experiences in relation to their encounters with racial and gender discrimination. They will also discuss how such encounters have affected or determined their current economic capabilities. Measurement of Variables The independent variables, racial and gender discrimination will be measured using a nominal scale, where a participant will be required to state the exact number of times she has been subjected to racial and/or gender discrimination. On the other hand, the dependent variable, economic capability, will be measured using an ordinal scale, where economic capability will be defined by the net income earned by the participant from either formal employment or personal business. Other factors such as ability to attain higher education, investments in real estate and security markets, and general lifestyle will also be used as determinates of economic capability. The following items will constitute part of the measures to be used in questionnaire: 1. Do you think race or gender discrimination has prevented you from getting a job even if you were qualified for it? (Y/N) 2. Has racial and gender discrimination prevented you from achieving your fullest economic capability? (Y/N) 3. In your opinion, have you ever been denied a chance for employment or access to financial services, such as loans and mortgages, due to your race and gender? (Y/N) 4. In your opinion, how many times have you been excluded from social activities within your community or organization due to your race and gender? a. Once b. Twice c. Three or more times 5. Compared to other women from other races, do you feel that you are paid more or less? a. More b. Less 6. Compared to non-African-American women, do you feel there are many opportunities for promotion and employee training and development for you at your workplace? (Y/N) 7. Do you think that your past experience or encounters with racial and gender discrimination have adversely affected economic opportunities available to you? (Y/N) 8. How many times have you been denied access to any economic or social opportunities based on your race and gender? a. Once b. Twice c. Three or more times Conclusion This research proposal will find solutions to one of the most contentious issues in our society today. Similarly, the study will suggest the most appropriate ways of dealing with economic problems caused by racial and gender discrimination of African-American women. From my part, effective economic empowerment of women entails providing them with equal opportunities as well as addressing various issues, such as racial discrimination, that may hinder their economic success. Moreover, supportive policies that focus on the empowerment of women, such as equal access to education and employment, should be adopted by relevant authorities and incorporated into our society. References Alfred, M. (2007). Welfare reform and black women's economic development. Adult Education Quarterly, 57, (4), 293-311. Bergman, M. E., Palmieri, P. A., & Ormerod, A. J. (2010). Racial and ethnic harassment and discrimination: in the eye of the beholder? Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 42(5), 164-170. Berger, Bethany (2009). Red: Racism and the American Indian, UCLA Law Review 591, 595-96, Retrieved from http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1269527. Boven, T. C. (2009). The concept of discrimination in the International convention on the elimination of all forms of racial discrimination. American Journal of Epidemiology, 166 (1), 46-54. Brown, D., & Tylka, T. (2011). Racial discrimination and resilience in African American young adults: Examining racial socialization as a moderator. The Journal of Black Psychology, 37(3), 259-285. Cynthia, V. S., & Brian, H. K. (2009). New development concerning gender discrimination in the workplace. Equal Opportunities International, 68, 33-42. Department of Labor (2011), Highlights of Women’s Earnings in 2010, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpswom2010.pdf. Donner, L. A. (2010). Gender bias in drafting international discrimination conventions: The 1979 women's convention compared with the 1965 racial convention. California Western International Law Journal, 124, 241-254. Feather, N., & Boeckmann, R. (2007). Beliefs about gender discrimination in the workplace in the context of affirmative action: Effects of gender and ambivalent attitudes in a North American sample. Sex Roles, 57, 1-2. Gondwe, Z. S. (2006). Prohibition against all forms of racial discrimination: Policy, law and reality. Lesotho Law Journal : A Journal of Law and Development, 79 (2), 53-64. Gordon, N. J. (2011). Cross-national comparisons of racial and ethnic economic inequality. American Economic Review, 120, 2-7. Hughes, Diane and Dodge, Mark (1997), African American Women in the Workplace: Relationships Between Job Conditions, Racial Bias at Work, and Perceived Job Quality, American Journal of Community Psychology, Vol. 25, No. 5, Retrieved from http://steinhardt.nyu.edu/scmsAdmin/uploads/002/720/African%20American%20women%20in%20the%20workplace.pdf. International Labor Organization (2008). General status report on ILO action concerning discrimination in employment and occupation. Papers of the Governing Body. Jager, J. (2011). A developmental shift in Black-White differences in depressive affect across adolescence and early adulthood: The influence of early adult social roles and socio- economic status. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 35 (5), 457-469. Nadin, S. J. (2009). Walking together, but in which direction? Gender discrimination and multicultural practices in Oaxaca, Mexico. Politics & Gender, 5 (2), 153-184. Puhl, R. M., Andreyeva, T., & Brownell, K. D. (2008). Perceptions of weight discrimination: Prevalence and comparison to race and gender discrimination in America. International Journal of Obesity (2005), 32 (6), 992-1000. Reitz, J. G. (2010). Host societies and the reception of immigrants: Institutions, markets, and policies. The International Migration Review, 56, 1005-1168. Sellers, R. M., & Shelton, J. N. (2008). The role of racial identity in perceived racial discrimination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 248 (3), 1092-1206. Talaska, C., Fiske, S., & Chaiken, S. (2008). Legitimating racial discrimination: Emotions, not beliefs, best predict discrimination in a meta-analysis. Social Justice Research, 21 (3), 263-296. Utsey, S., Bolden, M., & Williams, O. (2007). Examining the role of culture- specific coping as a predictor of resilient outcomes in African Americans from high- risk urban communities. Journal of Black Psychology, 33 (1), 75-93. Williams, David (2001), Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Health The Added Effects of Racism and Discrimination, Annals New York Academy of Sciences, P 174. Dear Dr. Maria Velez, We thank you and the editors for the opportunity to revise and resubmit the thesis entitled, “How Racial and Gender Discrimination have Adversely Reduced the Economic Opportunities Available for African-American Women”. We also want to thank the reviewers for their invaluable comments, which helped to strengthen this work. We hope that we have addressed the various comments and concerns as follows: Editor’s Comments 1. The introduction on P 2 has been rewritten, adding reference and justification for the points provided and changing the ambiguous language (i.e. “No research”) to the more appropriate abstract (“very little”). 2. APA format has been adhered to throughout the document. 3. Spelling and grammar have been checked and corrected as necessary. 4. Literature Review has been revamped to include subheadings of “Race” and “Gender” on P 4-7. 5. Hypothesis has been changed to include arguments for the theory versus accepted fact of Labor Statistics, P 8. 6. Questions have been changed to closed end, P 9-10. 7. A total of twenty-one references are shown. We want to thank you again for the opportunity to make the aforementioned changes and for your time. Sincerely, Dr. Claudio Vera Sanchez Assistant Professor Department of Sociology San Jose State University Read More