The African American Experience in the United States - Term Paper Example

Send these, the homeless, tempest-tost to me, I lift my lamp beside the golden door!" Emma Lazarus in “The New Colossus” Mother of Exiles Introduction When the first Europeans set their foot on the new world, little would the native aboriginal American Indians have thought that they would be dominated in their own land by people of foreign races. The ‘new world’ attracted peoples of all nations and all ethnic races to her fold, as described aptly by Emma Lazarus in her poem “The New Colossus1” (1883) .Surely, America rose like a mighty Colossus as more and more multinational, multi-ethnic, multi-lingual people pinned their hopes on her to make a golden, new, living in her bosom. While many Europeans made good their dreams and aspirations in this land of opportunities, history and ethnographic records show that it may not have been as smooth for many of the ‘others’ like the African slaves who were brought in to work on the cotton and sugarcane fields of the European settlers, East Asians, people of colored skin, and ‘other’ ethnicities and races. This essay shall briefly analyze the experiences of the significant ‘others’ – the section of immigrants excluding the non-dominant white European settlers. Focusing on two major groups of immigrants from the African and Asian continents, their experiences in settling in America shall be compared and contrasted. In the process, a deeper understanding of cultural similarities, differences, perceptions and inhibitions, which will help in a clearer comprehension of the current issues faced by them, is envisaged. The Differences in of African and Asian Immigrants’ Experiences One feature that predominantly differentiates the African immigration into America from East Asian, or any other immigration into America is the system of forced slavery of ‘blacks’. African immigration into America “starts in the 1500s with the first Africans coming from Mexico and the Caribbean to the Spanish territories” according to the Schomburg Center 2for Research in Black Culture website. African slaves were treated precisely as ‘chattel3’ (Donnan, p.1) – they were not allowed to a will of their own, they were made to behave in subservient ways, their marriage was not recognized; even worse, a slave “bound for the whole of his life, whose servitude passed to his children” (Handlin, 1972 cited in Immigration4 ). They were subjugated into accepting a different faith/religion from their own, forced to speak English which was totally alien to them, and were made to adopt manners and behaviors, as thought appropriate by their white masters. Thus, it is essential to note that the adoption of American culture by African immigrants was forced, not voluntary. Furthermore, African immigration into America may have taken place in as many as up to “thirteen defining migrations5 , with each migration “the shipment of black African slaves became even more cruel and merciless, as they were crammed by the masses into ships destined for lifelong labor, cruel treatment, and prejudice ridicule6”; there were approximately five hundred thousand African slaves at the time of American Revolution. Asian immigration into America was the consequence of “colonialism in Asia7” and “the labor shortage in the American West” and attracted nearly a million Asians, who then became an "Oriental problem" (science.jrank.org/). Unlike the African immigrants, the Asian immigrants came in as individuals as gold-mine workers, cheap laborers, and were known as “sojourners8 or separates”. For example, the Chinese came into the US in large numbers in1800's during ‘the California Gold Rush9’. The Japanese came in mostly from Hawaiian sugar fields into mainland America, as replacement to the Chinese when they fell out of favor of the whites. However, soon after, these two populations saw a decrease- decrease in the inflow of Chinese and Japanese immigrants, due to various factors like a) legal barriers – the Chinese Exclusion Act (1882, cited in Jandt p.337), the Gentlemen’s Agreement (1907); b) unequal sex ratios more male Chinese immigrants than female immigrants, and c) high repatriate population returning to their motherlands, for example, Chinese population in the U.S. was only 62,000 in 192010. The waves of migration of the Asians, as compared to Africans, were also less and restricted to two or three. One other differentiating factor in the experiences of African and Asian immigrants is that, Asian communities had and established strong link within their communities and lived in clearly earmarked geographical areas like the Chinese lived in ‘Chinatowns11’; the Japanese too lived close to each other, and even when they were interned during the second world war, forged strong community relations within themselves. This set them apart from the Africans slaves. More importantly, since the Asians maintained their cultural and lingual links with their homelands, they could return when the atmosphere became very hostile to them in America. Similar has been the experiences of other Asian communities like the Filipinos, Asian Indians and Koreans12. However, the Africans – who were forced to cut their cultural links with their homelands, did not have the advantage of continuing their languages, or ethnic arts13, as they remembered none. This was especially traumatic and hit the African migrants very badly, since their culture was more dependent on collectivity, community music, and collective community support.14 Lynching was a common danger faced by Africans; they were also victims of racial segregation, and were prohibited from attending the same churches, schools or living in the neighborhoods of dominant white communities, after slavery-abolition came into existence. It limited their interaction with dominant whites and made them vulnerable to violence. The Parallels in of African and Asian Immigrants’ Experiences While considering the parallels or the similarities between the experiences of the African immigrants and the Asian immigrants into America, it is important to bear in mind that the dominant group was the white European race, and all ‘other’ denominations, races, and people of ethnic origins were expected to adopt the values, religious beliefs, and systems practiced by whites, as it was considered “standard15”. Any minority group which did not conform to these social constructs of the white, Caucasian, European society, was marginalized and discriminated. This unified all the minority groups, like Latin Americans, Chinese, Japanese, Filipinos, Hmong Americans, Asian Indians, Vietnamese, and Muslims from the West-Asian nations, which did not belong to the dominant society, and included even the members of the native aboriginal American Indian communities under one label ‘others.’ Both African and Asian immigrants have experienced, and to some extent continue to experience forms of discrimination, in social relations, educational opportunities, franchise rights, and job opportunities. As minorities with differences in color and cultures, the onus of proving their innocence falls on members of these communities. For example, a ‘black’ was prone to be viewed with suspicion, attract verbal abuse and even be accosted by the police16 if he “walked his sister’s white girlfriends’ home through the park” (Poussaint, cited in NVLP website). This was the situation since the early nineteenth century as stated in the Civil War History website “Although black soldiers proved themselves as reputable soldiers, discrimination in pay and other areas remained widespread. According to the Militia Act of 1862, soldiers of African descent were to receive $10.00 a month, plus a clothing allowance of $3.50. Many regiments struggled for equal pay, some refusing any money until June 15, 1864, when Congress granted equal pay for all black soldiers17”. Racism is subtle and powerful, and can be found lurking in the educated elite of the society, which means that a black has to prove himself/herself at every stage and achievement, that he/she indeed, deserves it. The constant and invisible pressure to keep proving oneself leads to poor self-esteem and therefore, poor-achievement levels of the community as a whole. A more recent example can be cited from the Rodney King18 episode, in which King an African American was caught and lynched by four white officers for crossing the speed-limit and not stopping when the police bid him do so; interestingly, even though King was seriously injured, the four police officers were tried and found ‘not guilty’ by the criminal justice department. This episode is rightly cited by Ronald Takaki (p.4) in his “A Different Mirror-A history of Multicultural America” as an example of race relations reaching a new low. It was no different for members of other minorities and ethnicities. The Japanese were interned during WWII and were looked at with suspicion, after the bombing of the Pearl Harbor (1941) and the resultant trauma left many Issei and Nisei 19(first generation and second generation) Americans scarred for life (Immigration website). The Chinese were worse off. They were made to work for meager pay in dangerous jobs when the Central Pacific Railroad was built; however, when the mines were over-exploited, leaving hardly any jobs for non-Asians, this “spurred sentiment that the "rice-eaters" were to blame20” and for long their hard-work and valuable contribution to the development of the nation was not even recognized. Another striking example of discrimination suffered by Vietnamese communities due to ignorance of Asian culture and their practices is cited by Fred Jandt (2007) in his Introduction to Intercultural Communication. He cites the reports of Western Journal of Medicine to show how misunderstandings regarding Vietnamese practice of folk medicine 21led to labeling them as child-abusers that caused at least one parent to commit suicide. Thus, in above mentioned ways, the discrimination, disrespect, and deprivation suffered by both the African American immigrant communities and the different members of Asian American communities. In the melting cauldron that current day America is, complications have in no way decreased; they have only increased. Adding to the complexity of the situation have been inhibitions raised by fear and insecurity caused by incredible acts of terrorism such as 9/11 attacks on the WTO twin-towers. Issues Faced the Immigrant Population Today With regard to persisting racism in America, Ronald Takaki pertinently states “’Race,’ Toni Morrison explained, has functioned as a "metaphor" necessary to the "construction of Americanness": in the creation of our national identity, "American" has been defined as ‘white22’” However, the situation is soon to change, with the Latino and Asian population set to overtake the combined white European population. Given below is the table published by the US Government’s National Center for Educational Statistics. website, which gives the Number, percentage, and percentage distribution of U.S. population, by nativity and race/ethnicity with Hispanic and Asian subgroups: 2005, for reference. Significantly Takaki cites Time (1990) Magazine to state that by the year 2056, a larger percentage of Americans will have their ancestors from countries like Africa, Asia, the Hispanic world, the Pacific Islands, Arabia, and others, rather than the white European23. This highlights the importance of America having to undergo radical changes in its ideology of what constitutes ‘Americanness.’ Many important issues confront the American ideology of one unified identity. Poverty, status, education, health, living conditions, and other social inequalities still grip the American states, with minorities being marginalized. For example, income levels – one of the most important factors of equality index points to a glaring difference between whites and racial minorities. The Average African American family income in 2003 amounted to only 62% of the average white family income – amounting to 30,000 USD as against the 48,000 USD 24of the latter. One in three African American men and two out of five African American women and Latino men, and a little above 50% of Latino women25 - all earn wages that are below the poverty line in America. While Asian Americans have fared well in the fields of education, and therefore income levels, wage disparities still exist – meaning that for the same levels of education white Europeans are still paid higher wages as compared to Asian minorities26. On the crime front, a number of loop-holes need to be taken care of. Like for example, the recent spate of racial murders of Asian Indian students in various American universities27 reported in various newspapers is of particular concern to the largely successful Asian Indian communities in America. This is of particular importance, since students of Chinese and Asian Indian origin constitute the largest numbers of ethnic minorities pursuing university studies. Particular care must be shown to educate the general population regarding minority culture, languages and background, so that suspicion born of ignorance is removed. This is especially true with regard to followers of Islam in America; all people who are Muslims and others who look like Muslims too are looked upon as terrorists and as potential threats to the American society, especially post 9/11 attacks, which is largely unfair to the particular society. However, the election of Barack Obama as the first African American president signifies a turn in the trend of racial discrimination and hopefully more ‘colored’ representatives will be elected to high offices in the American Government. Healthcare services for racial minorities is yet another area that needs to be addressed without delay, as in the long run they will percolate into entire cross-sections of the American population and hold the potential to cause problems in future. Conclusion America has always been known as the land of opportunities and has attracted people from all over the world, to come to her shores and make a new living. The coming of Europeans rendered even the native aboriginal American Indians a minority in their own land – symbolizing the success of the European exploitation of the new land. As a legacy of colonization, Europeans brought in African slavery into America, which spread quickly to the South and stayed put for long year to come. While this commenced the migration of Africans, more slaves were transported from various part of the continent, as ‘commodities’ to be sold for profit. The appalling cruelty suffered by the Africans thus forced into abject poverty and servitude, and loss of roots, forms an indelible part of African American history. The immigration of Asians too has marked similarities to the experiences of Africans, though, not without differences, most important being the fact that Asian immigrants were considered ‘sojourners’ rather than as slaves. This helped them preserve their lingual and cultural links and tide through much of their hardships in an alien land, while also providing shelter when they had to leave America. Racial and ethnic problems have not diminished with time, and seem to be getting more complicated in the wake of wide spread terrorism. The identity of America as white, European origin is being subject to sever challenge at the face of being outnumbered by increasing non-white Hispanic and Asian populations. Simultaneously, serious gaps exist in the areas of economic inequalities and social discriminations and healthcare services. All these areas need to be addressed urgently and seriously if America is to overcome its racial problems and emerge as one unified, successful example of multiculturalism. Appendix 1. Table 2b. Number, percentage, and percentage distribution of U.S. population, by nativity and race/ethnicity with Hispanic and Asian subgroups: 2005 Race/ethnicity and subgroup Total population Native Foreign-born Number Percent Percentage distribution Total1 288,399,000 87.6 35,778,000 12.4 100.0 White 192,527,000 96.1 7,446,000 3.9 20.8 Black 34,411,000 92.6 2,536,000 7.4 7.1 Hispanic 41,926,000 59.6 16,841,000 40.2 47.1 Mexican 26,784,000 59.5 10,856,000 40.5 30.3 Puerto Rican 3,795,000 98.9 41,000 1.1 0.1 Dominican 1,136,000 40.8 672,000 59.2 1.9 Central American 3,115,000 31.3 2,141,000 68.7 6.0 South American 2,238,000 28.4 1,603,000 71.6 4.5 Other Hispanic or Latino 4,859,000 68.5 1,528,000 31.5 4.3 Asian 12,331,000 32.2 8,355,000 67.8 23.4 Asian Indian 2,299,000 25.4 1,715,000 74.6 4.8 Chinese 2,831,000 30.2 1,975,000 69.8 5.5 Filipino 2,230,000 32.4 1,507,000 67.6 4.2 Japanese 823,000 60.1 328,000 39.9 0.9 Korean 1,253,000 22.4 972,000 77.6 2.7 Vietnamese 1,406,000 32.5 949,000 67.5 2.7 Other Asian 1,490,000 39.0 908,000 61.0 2.5 Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander 346,000 78.7 74,000 21.3 0.2 American Indian/Alaska Native 2,036,000 98.5 30,000 1.5 0.1 More than one race 4,046,000 95.2 195,000 4.8 0.5 1 Total includes other race/ethnicity categories not separately shown. NOTE: Births to U.S. citizens outside of U.S. territory are included as native. Population estimates may differ from those in other tables due to time of year of estimation. Race categories exclude persons of Hispanic origin. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2005. List of Works Cited Civil War History – “History of African Americans in the Civil War” Online version accessed on 27 March, 2009. http://www.itd.nps.gov/cwss/history/aa_history.htm Donnan, Elizabeth (1930). Documents Illustrative of the History of the Slave Trade to America: Volume I: 1441-1700 Carnegie Institution of Washington (Washington D.C., 1930) p.2 Available in In motion African American Migration Experience Website. Eitzen, D. Stanley & Zinn, Baca Maxine (2006). In Conflict and Order: Understanding Society, Eleventh Edition. Allyn & Bacon; 11 edition (July 7, 2006) pp. 195-313. Emma Lazarus (1883). “The New Colossus” Online version accessed on 27 March, 2009. http://www.libertystatepark.com/emma.htm Handlin, Oscar. A Pictorial History of Immigration. New York: Crown Publishers, 1972. In Immigration (1999) “The Journey to America” - The Africans. http://library.thinkquest.org/20619/African.html Immigration (1999). “The Journey to America” – Chinese Online version accessed on 27 March, 2009. http://library.thinkquest.org/20619/Chinese.html Immigration – “Journey to America – The Japanese” Online version accessed on 27 March, http://library.thinkquest.org/20619/Japanese.html Indiaedunews.net. “Another Indian Student killed on US Campus” Online version accessed on 27 March, 2009. http://indiaedunews.net/International/Another_Indian_student_killed_on_US_campus_31 81/ Jandt, G. Fred (2007). Introduction to Intercultural Communication, 5th Ed. Pp.329-339. Levine, W. Lawrence (1977). Black Culture and Black Consciousness. Oxford University Press. P. 4. National Center for Educational Statistics – Table 2b. Online version accessed on 27 March, 2009. http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2007/minoritytrends/tables/table_2b.asp?referrer=report pbsworld – “The Legacy of Rodney King” Online version accessed on 27 March, 2009. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/lapd/race/king.html Poussaint, Alvin in National Visionary Leadership Project or NVLP - “The Oral History Archive - Alvin Poussaint,” Online version accessed on 27 March. http://www.visionaryproject.com/poussaintalvin/ Reception of Asians to the United States - Asian Immigration http://science.jrank.org/pages/10966/Reception-Asians-United-States-Asian- Immigration.html Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture –In motion – African American Migration Experience. Online article accessed on 27 March, 2009. http://www.inmotionaame.org/home.cfm;jsessionid=f830448701238434693876?bhcp=1 Takaki, Ronald (1993). “A Different Mirror-A history of Multicultural America” Chapter one. p. 2 Read More