Analyzing Photojournalism in the Digital Age - Essay Example

? Susan Sontag on Photography: Analyzing Photo Journalism In the Digital Age First Middle Initial Susan Sontag on Photography: Analyzing Photojournalism in the Digital Age Introduction Susan Sontag wrote On Photography in 1977 as a collection of essays that appeared in the New York Review of Books from 1973 to 1977. Through this book, Sontag was able to share some important views on history, culture, and photography. Some of her works on modern photography included an exploration of the history of American photography by focusing on the cynical aesthetic notions of the 1970s, as well as an in-depth look at the practices in photography during the Depression Era. In all of her works, Sontag believed that the proliferation of photographic images had developed a worldwide recognition that photographs ought to be exact representations of reality. Thus, the essence of photography is pure reflection of reality. As such, every photographer must know, both technically and artistically, the proper way of capturing images in order to deliver a pure message about a phenomenon. In this paper, we intend to examine further some of Sontag’s critical teachings about photography by emphasizing on its purpose, the ideal relation between the photographer and his subject, and the key issues surrounding the practice of photography. After this, we deepen our understanding on the essence of photography by looking at one essential issue, that is, the problem of photo manipulation in modern photojournalism. In this part, we first study the trends in photographic manipulation to understand how the practices have been caused, either directly or indirectly, by technological and commercial innovations. After this, we discuss why and how photo manipulation is done. Such topics are to be discussed in relation to specific cases of photo manipulation in the mass media like newspapers and magazines. Then, we elucidate on the essence of photojournalism in the context of social development. We conclude this paper by revisiting some ideas in the Social Responsibility Theory of the Press. In the end, we aim to justify our thesis that since photojournalism is a form of mass media communication, it ought to disclose societal truths to help deliver progress in society. A. Important Ideas: Susan Sontag’s On Photography Susan Sontag condemned photography by asserting that it only delivers images that are nothing more than shadows of reality. As she metaphorically strengthened this thesis, humans who view photographs are like trapped men in a cave who only see the shadows of the outside world. What they deem as ‘real’ are actually distorted reflections of reality. To arrive at a more meaningful discussion of On Photography, let us first delve into her definition of photography. To Sontag, to photograph is to appropriate to the thing being photographed. It is an act of non-intervention. Thus, there should be distance between the photographer and his subject. However, she believed that since photographs do not provide contextual stories about the world, they become miniatures of reality. The world, therefore, becomes a series of unrelated particles or phenomena, with no interconnectedness or continuity. But the capacity to imitate reality is not the only definitive characteristic of photography, for in the artistic activity of the photographer he is able to elevate his creations as pretentious works of art. As narrated by Bridget Brimer in her online article entitled Literary Interpretation and Analysis of Susan Sontag's Book, On Photography, Chapter 1: "In Plato's Cave", through the use of various skills in photography, the photographer is able to convert a phenomenon into an image that provides a transient experience to its intended audience. Thus, Sontag saw the act of photographing as symbolic shooting, or even raping. Sontag reckoned that photographing is like raping since the photographer sees his subject in a manner that is unavailable to himself (subject’s). He gains knowledge about the subject that can never be his (subject’s). Building further on this idea, Bridget Brimer through that same online article, asserted that the photographer, in his ability to interpret the world through photography, can resort to doctoring his images through retouching, cropping, and scale changes. In effect, people who view these images may assign symbolic meanings to it which culminates in stereotyping or fanaticism. It is in the artistic presentation of a photograph that the photographer arrests reality, as highlighted in another online article by Christian Molidor and Mike Harter entitled Sontag on Photography: Two Views. According to them, citing Sontag, photography is a form of nostalgia as it is the photographer’s attempt to connect and gain custody of a passing reality. Photography, therefore, can turn any moment into an event. Thus, the photographer’s decision to photograph a moment hints at his immense ability to construct cultural realities. Now that that we have understood Sontag’s definitions of photography in three levels—from the distorted mirroring of reality to the construction of symbolic images—let us now go through the role that photography has played in upholding, maintaining, and enhancing societal values and norms. In this vein, Sontag insisted that the industrialization of camera technology has democratized society’s experiences as virtually everyone is given the capacity and the accessibility to take photographs. Thus, Sontag strongly believed that since anyone can take photos, society is overrun by photography (Brimer). Indeed, photography has hugely influenced familial relations and other important institutions in a sense that taking photos is expected in important events and celebrations. Revisiting Sontag’s On Photography is interesting in three ways: first, because through her work, we are able to critically examine the nature of photography in ‘capturing’ reality. While she was adamant in pointing out that photography cannot reveal the reality behind the external objects it captures, it is crucial to ask whether her assumptions possess any authentic value once the discipline of photography is taken into much technical consideration. Second, through her work, we are able to see the intended relation between the photographer and his subjects. Her perspective on non-intervention truly marked an influential principle in the field of photojournalism. Lastly, her revelations on the vast influence of photography in social interactions highlight some of the positive contributions that photography can provide toward bettering society. B. Photojournalism in Digital Technology 1. Photographic Manipulation Photojournalism, as described by Paul Martin Lester in Chapter Six: Picture Manipulation of Photojournalism: an Ethical Approach, has a long and cherished tradition of truthfulness. In this sense, the visual image formed by the viewer from a photograph is delivered by a camera ‘that never lies’. Thus, as Paul Martin Lester later on clarified in the same work, the camera faithfully and unemotionally records a moment in time. But it is essential to note that the camera, as a machine, is only as truthful as the person that operates it. With new technological innovations that allow easy and undetectable photographic manipulation, ethical concerns in untruthful photojournalism becomes a vital issue. At this point, it is crucial to underscore that the visual altering of photographs, either through the stage direction of the photographer or through the creative manipulations of the editor, has long been a tradition (Lester). From a historical perspective, photographic manipulation has been done by the mass media to further the economic and political interests of the ‘elite’, essentially by controlling the general mindset of the naive public on social issues. Traditional forms of photo manipulation included burning, dodging, bleaching, negative-sandwiching, double-printing, and other special effects. Today, the lowered price of camera equipment and the proliferation of more powerful editing software drive most mass media corporations to digitally manipulate their images. With the release of numerous DSLRs from Canon, Nikon, and Sony, photographers can create multiple-exposure images within the camera itself (Lester). The result of this often leads to the manipulation of images as photos taken individually can be edited, imposed, and altered as a group. Numerous types of photo manipulation have been heavily observed in sports photography. Since it is difficult for film cameras to capture ‘still images’ of the moving athletes, most editors use a lot of digital photo manipulation programs to adjust the photo’s quality or even add other enticing visual elements and effects. 2. Bottom line of Photographic Manipulation From the perspective of photojournalism, it can be claimed that the primary reason why manipulation of images is done in news corporations is profit. Indeed, as further mentioned in the same material of Paul Martin Lester, photographs (specifically, cover photographs for newspapers and magazine) are altered in order to achieve the maximum audience impact. Photos, therefore, are used to attract buyers; and the more visually appealing the photos are, the more readers a newspaper or magazine acquires. In most cases, however, photographic manipulation is not usually done by the photojournalist himself. It is the editor, driven by commercialistic reasons, who usually dictates the ‘retouching’ of photographs. Today, although most photographers are consulted by editors, they are still left with minimal steer as to how their photos will look like in the actual printed material. 3. Specific Examples of Digital Photographic Manipulation In order to enrich our discussion, we will cite five examples of photographic manipulation, as stated in Lester’s Chapter Six: Picture Manipulation of Photojournalism: an Ethical Approach. The first manipulation was discovered in National Geographic Magazine during its cover story of Egypt’s the Great Pyramids of Giza in which the horizontal cover picture was squeezed together to fit the magazine’s vertical format. Another photo enhancement was done by National Geographic during their issue of Bruno Barby in which facial expressions were altered to heighten his mood. The second manipulation was done in the cover of A Day in the Life of America wherein the visual orientation of the objects was changed from horizontal to vertical. The third manipulation was claimed to have been done in Picture Week Magazine in which the two photographs of Nancy Reagan and Raisa Gorbachev were fused together to portray a misleading attitude of friendliness. The fourth manipulation was done in Popular Science Magazine in which the photo of an airplane was combined with another background. The last manipulation was noted in the TV Guide Magazine cover in which television interviewer Oprah Winfrey’s head was spliced on top of Ann Margret’s body. 4. Revisiting the Essence of Photojournalism While the aforementioned examples of digital photographic manipulations did not wreak destructive negative repercussions on society, it is worth noting that the activity of manipulating images is tantamount to distorting truths. And given that photojournalism is meant to uphold the values of honesty and truthfulness, this problem is meant to be discussed and resolved primarily from an ethical point-of-view. At this point, it is important to ask about the essence of photojournalism. In this regard, it can be deemed that since photographs purport to depict reality, they must at all times be genuine. The purpose of photojournalism lies on the faithful and comprehensive depiction of the subject at hand. Thus, no people or objects may be added, rearranged, reversed, distorted, or removed from a scene that has been photographed. Although the adjustments of color are unavoidable, this must be intended for making a clear and accurate reproduction of images. Indeed, it can be strongly asserted that there is no substitute for the communication of truth in photojournalism. Viewers and readers of newspapers and magazines should never be manipulated nor misled for the pragmatic reasons of the corporate elite. Photojournalists, in this reasoning, have the responsibility to produce only honest images. They do not have the right to set up pictures since doing is similar to staging the news, or even worse, distorting news facts. But does the presentation of the images as they are in reality inhibit the freedom of the photographers in developing their craft? For this matter, it must be clarified that news photographs can be regarded as direct information about an issue. Thus, just as a writer can choose which quotes to put in a story in the interest of brevity or impact, so can a news photographer or picture editor crop out dead space in a news photo. But such activities are not meant to distort the objective value of the story, but rather enhance it for clarity’s sake. While the essence of ethics in photojournalism can be easily understood as the upholding of truth, it can also encompass the choices that an individual photographer makes while shooting. Specifically, should a war photographer put down his camera in order to help an injured solder? Or, if someone asks his or her photo not to be taken, is it ethical to still take the photograph of the person? This brings forth another facet of photojournalism, which aims to answer the question that if ethics is about faithful and comprehensive reporting, are intentional underexposing or poor focusing acts of unethical behavior? To shed light on these controversial issues, it is logical to review the central tenets of photojournalism. For this matter, we intend to have a close look at six relevant ethical principles which are: categorical imperative, utilitarianism, hedonism, the golden mean, the veil of ignorance, and the golden rule. Although judging the inherent values of each of the philosophies is beyond the scope of this paper, it can still distill some important ideas on ethical photojournalism. Firstly, the categorical imperative is based from Immanuel Kant’s notion that what is acceptable for a single person should be acceptable for everyone, almost like a theoretical “non-discrimination clause”. Through this example, as Paul Martin Lester narrated, supposed a newspaper editor is trying to decide whether to publish an image of a partially nude young woman fleeing a house fire.  That editor should consider whether he would publish the image under different circumstances—the social, ethical, and cultural impacts that the image may have both for the subject in the photo and for the intended audience of that photo. Secondly, utilitarianism attempts to weigh both the positive sides and the negative sides of a situation, and in effect, maxims the good circumstances for the greatest number of people. In this light, it can be mentioned that if horrible photos of a plane crash offend the families of the victims, but are able to disseminate the public on emergency preparedness, using the utilitarian point-of-view can lead us to saying that publishing such photos is ethical. Thirdly, hedonism is premised on the idea of doing what feels good. In this light, publishing explicit photos can be morally acceptable on the basis that they provide pleasure to the viewers. Although this idea may appear blatant, publishing a provocative front page in order to sell a newspaper or a magazine is also hinged on hedonistic thinking. Fourthly, the golden mean as a philosophy concerns primarily on the idea of compromise. In the context of publishing a photo for the information of the public, publishing a less intrusive, offensive, or disagreeable photo is a better alternative than an obvious gruesome one. Therefore, the golden mean, as coined from Aristotle’s ethics, finds the middle ground on certain scenarios rather an all-or-nothing approach. Fifthly, the veil of ignorance incites both the moral and the logical considerations of both the photographer and the editor by asking them how they would feel if they were the subject of the photographs being published. Putting them in the situation of the subjects is effective not only in considering the emotional impacts of publishing a photograph, but also its psychological and logical effects. Thus, if both the photographer and the editor do not feel good on publishing the photograph after using this approach, then they have to use another image for publishing. Lastly, the golden mean is an ethical philosophy that is based on the phrase “loving your neighbor as you love yourself”. This teaches the photographer or the editor to treat the subjects as they would treat themselves. Of course, the decision concerning the publication of photos would get the help of personal ethics. Looking at these philosophies, it can be claimed that the ethical issue of photojournalism in war is a highly complex one. Using the categorical imperative, it can be said that a photojournalist must not only ‘stand and take photos’ but do, in his own way, certain acts directed to saving lives. This is supported by the golden mean approach in which saving other people’s lives must be done in relation to how one values his own life. After all, the responsibility of persons to help others in times of suffering is a natural consequence of human essence. This perspective significantly changes by the time the principles of utilitarianism and the golden mean are considered. Through utilitarianism, presenting horrendous war photos may incite public consciousness on the illogicality and immorality of such phenomenon which can later on translate to actual human actions. With this, the presentation of human suffering through photographs can be used as a tool toward creating a positive change in society. In support of this moral approach, the golden mean theory asserts that the photographer can help the subjects after he has taken photographs of them. In this sense, the photographer is able to help the victims, and at the same time do his job. C. Analysis and Conclusion: Photojournalism and the Social Responsibility of the Press At this point, it is important to look at photojournalism in a much bigger context, that is, by considering it as a form of mass media communication. For this matter, we first define what mass communication is. Then, we move on to the three theories of mass media in order to discern the real role of photojournalism. Mass media is any medium used by an individual or group of persons to transmit a message to a large group of audience. Essentially, mass media provides the venue for social communication, which helps in the administration of human affairs. Mass communication, like any form of communication, is defined both as message content and as communication process, which results from the interaction between the sender and the receiver of message. The result of this interaction is the shared meaning about a certain phenomenon, and grouping together these ‘shared meanings’ can help in the construction of social reality. Contextually, therefore, mass communication influences the way people perceive themselves, other people, and the society they belong in. 1. Three Theories of Mass Media Firstly, the Libertarian Theory focuses on the right of news reporters and photo journalists to broadcast any opinion, either right or wrong, in an uncensored manner. This means that photo journalists habe the right to access all types of information sources and maintain their confidentiality, as well as right to publish or broadcast any news story. Through the freedom from any form of restriction, they can promote a wide variety of opinions, which will ultimately lead to a free marketplace of ideas. At this point, it is worth noting that the primary tenets of Libertarian Theory bank mainly on the assumption that the intended audience is comprised of rational people who are able to discern between truth and falsehood from any given piece of information. The inherent capacity of the intellect implies that people will always make the right choice in a given situation. Therefore, Libertarian Theory assumes that people can freely and successfully determine their own destiny. This theory is indirectly supportive of another theory of mass media called the Political Economy. In this light, this theory is premised on the idea that news reporters and photo journalists intend to mobilize support for the special interests that dominate the government and private entities. This role is seen as a consequence of a world that is concentrated on wealth and conflicts of class interest. Indeed, mass media biases arise from the structure of media ownership today, which are intended toward furthering the political or commercial interests of the elite. Thus, mass media reflects its owners, from its hierarchal organization to its core values and ideals. Through this mindset, the public is seen as mere targets for political or commercial gains. As for the political side, influencing the public’s perspectives in favor of a political figure is intended to obtain support during elections. As for the commercial side, the public become targets of heavy advertising messages which, in effect, create a culture of consumerism. Lastly, The Social Responsibility Theory contradicts some of the major assertions of the two previous theories. According to the online article entitled What is Social Responsibility Theory?, this theory advocates the necessity of putting up regulations on mass media corporations so that it is able to act toward fulfilling its primary purpose, that is, the proper administration of social affairs. With this, for mass media to imbibe the values of social responsibility, it requires the balancing of the rights of mass media owners with fundamental social interests. From the news reporter’s and photographer’s point-of-view, this theory proposes the responsible practice of journalism, for all messages conveyed to the public must be honest, truthful, and relevant. Therefore, there lies an accepted duty of journalists to critically evaluate the value of its messages before sending them out to the public. Through this thinking, it can be claimed that the photojournalist’s right to publication must be seen within the context of promoting social justice and harmony. Unlike the Libertarian Theory that openly argues the absence of any form of press control, and the Political Economy Theory that safeguards the interest of the corporate elite, the Social Responsibility Theory focuses the role of media toward promoting the benefit of the public by arming them with truthful information about the government, private entities, and societal life in general. Media ethics becomes automatic in this sense. Conclusion In conclusion, it can be said that photo journalism exists in order to enhance the lives of people in society. It is through the honest and truthful delivery of political, economic, and commercial messages that harmony and justice is preserved in society. This entails not just the reasonable subjection of the practices in digital photography under the rules of ethical communication, but also on the education and encouragement of the public in maintaining a society bound by respect and truth. Works Cited Brimer, Bridget. “Literary Interpretation and Analysis of Susan Sontag's Book, On Photography, Chapter 1: "In Plato's Cave”. Hubpages.com, 2011. Web. 10 April 2012. Molidor, Christian and Harter, Mike. “Sontag on Photography: Two Views”. Center For Media Literacy, 2011. Web. 10 April 2012. Lester, Paul Martin. “Chapter Six: Picture Manipulation of Photojournalism: an Ethical Approach”. Fullerton.edu. Web. 10 April 2012. Hutchins Commission of the Freedom of the Press. What is Social Responsibility Theory?. Media Literacy, 2009. Web. 10 April 2012. Read More