Information Processing Theory: The Tip of the Iceberg - Case Study Example

Information Processing Theory: The Tip of the Iceberg Introduction With information around us growing at an exponential rate, it is expedient and necessary to find a way to keep up. Schools try to cram every conceivable subject which they think will benefit a child. Yet, no universal and perfect teaching and learning style has been found. This is significant, because researchers, educators, and psychologists will surely develop, test, or apply different and new theories. One of the theories that were developed in the last century and ranks as one of the best is information processing theory. It is the theory of cognitive development that likens the human mind to that of the computer. It became vogue in the 1950s when high-speed computers started developing. (Information-Processing Theory, n.d. a) This paper shall try to give a broad overview of Information Processing Theory. But with thousands or perhaps millions of researches, books, and articles published, anyone wishing to find complete information would realize that what this paper has provided is only the tip of the iceberg. Brief History There are different but similar forms of information processing theories. Nevertheless, they originated from the works of cognitive psychology, primarily through the works of David Rumelhart & James McClelland and their Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) (History of Cognitive Psychology, 1997) Their PDP model has the following components, and it can be seen later how this fits very well into the Modern Information Processing Theory: (Rumelhart, Hinton, and McClelland, 1986) a set of processing units a state of activation an output function for each unit a pattern of connectivity among units a propagation rule for propagating patterns of activities through the network of connectivities an activation rule for combining the inputs impinging on a unit with the current state of that unit to produce a new level of activation for the unit a learning rule whereby patterns of connectivity are modified by experience an environment within which the system must operate As stated earlier, information processing theories developed because in the 1950s computers came under increased development. Researchers like Herbert Simoun at that time really thought and properly demonstrated that human intelligence can be simulated using computers. From this, various models of information processing theory have been proposed, primarily in the work on memory (Information-processing theory, n.d. b). Note also that there is an information processing theory called Miller’s Organizational Information Theory: “This theory identifies three important concepts: information processing needs, information processing capability, and the fit between the two to obtain optimal performance. Organizations need quality information to cope with environmental uncertainty and improve their decision making. Environmental uncertainty stems from the complexity of the environment and dynamism, or the frequency of changes to various environmental variables.” (Premkumar, G., Ramamurthy, K., & Saunders, C. S., 2005). Apparently, this has also developed from the original information processing theories. However, this is applied to organizations. So, it is time to be clear that the Information Processing Theory referred in this paper is the cognitive theory, out of which memory and learning can be examined. Components of Information Processing Theory It must be understood that there are general principles that Information Processing Theory follows, without which, the system cannot be said to work (Hutt, 2003): 1. Assumption of Limited Capacity Processing of information is limited. It has a capacity of 7 plus/minus 2 at a time. In other words, there are so many things around seeking attention, but the mind cannot process them quickly and simultaneously as much as people want to. There will always be a limit as to how much and what the mind can process. 2. Existence of Control Mechanism A control mechanism will eat up some capacity “to oversee the encoding, transformation, processing, storage, retrieval and utilization of information.” This depends if a skill has been learned or not. Once a skill is mastered, the control mechanism will use less of this capacity so that the task can be seen to be performed automatically. 3. Two-way Flow of Information This is analogous to inductive and deductive reasoning. In Information Processing Theory, we have top-down processing and bottom-up processing. The former refers to the use of information stored in our memory. The latter refers to the use of incoming information through our senses. The dynamics of information processing then depends on these variables. Thus, though two persons may have the same information processing capability in bottom-up processing, the top-bottom processing may be the key difference. Success in any endeavour can be traced really to experience, and this is significant insight. 4. Genetic Predisposition to Process and Organize Information in Specific Ways Researchers studying infants and children have observed consistent phenomena such as the predisposition of a baby to look at a face than any object. If this is so, then perhaps this could also account for what many adults experience, especially information processing. This principle highlights also the debate whether language is genetic or learned from the environment. This is also where cognitive and behavioural psychologists have great contentions over the years. Still, the debate continues. To recapitulate: Humans have a limited memory and information processing capacity. The more a person is familiar with a subject, the better he or she can process information from that topic. It follows, then, that if a person wants to be an expert in that, he or she should read as many books on that topic as possible over time; if he or she can talk with experts, so much the better. Finally, since information processing follows specific patterns, a person ought to know and recognize them to further his or her goals. Now that this paper has presented the essentials of Information Processing Theory, the following sections proceed to apply the assumptions and researches on IPT. Specific applications and issues shall be discussed. IPT and Child Development It was mentioned earlier that IPT originated from the works of cognitive psychologists. One famous view is that of French psychologist Jean Piaget. He states the children follow universal stages of cognitive development, as shown below (Funderstanding, n.d.): 1. Sensorimotor stage (birth - 2 years old) Children build physical concepts through interaction with the environment. At this stage, children do not have yet the concept of object permanence. They think that an object out of view is gone 2. Preoperational stage (ages 2-7) Children cannot yet think abstractly at this stage. They must use concrete objects as referents. 3. Concrete operations (ages 7-11) Children start to develop logic and abstract conceptions. Children here start learning Mathematics. 4. Formal operations (beginning at ages 11-15) At this stage, children start thinking like adults. Abstract thinking predominate their thought processes. Essentially, Piaget says that depending on the stages of cognitive development, information processing capabilities are different. However, the standard model of Information Processing Theory contests this. A child’s information processing ability may proceed in stages but not in the way that Piaget proposes. It is very specific, while IPT is very flexible (Developmental Theory: Cognitive and Information Processing, n.d.) IPT in the Nature – Nurture Debate There is this famous twin studies. Two identical twins were separated and grew up in different environments. Later, when they meet and their IQs were measures, they still had the same IQ. So, in this case, environment is irrelevant (Omrod &McDevitt, 2007). But the studies do not indicate the exact relationship of environment and heredity, so it cannot really be known as of this moment. But to accept the Information Processing Theory is to accept the salience of the Environment over Heredity in Intelligence. Genetic factors will limit a person’s information processing capabilities, but it can be argues that this as a given is not at all noticed. To the degree that our environment can develop and facilitate the development of a person’s information processing capability, the better is that environment. This happens when a person can readily use top-down processing for specific problems. Hence, for this case, environment becomes key, not heredity. Criticisms All is not well for Information Processing Theory. It has its fair share of critics and criticisms, and presented below are the remarks of Jeff Hawkins, John Searle, and Antonio Damasio. According to Jeff Hawkins, people just feel that they are sentient human beings who take in information just like a computer does. But this is contradicted by recent advances in neuropsychology. Furthermore, if the human mind functions like a computer, there are some lags that would happen if people process repeatedly some information, but this is not the case. For example, people can readily identify that a cat is really a cat, and without much thought (Hawkins, 2003). John Sarle is a philosopher notable for his works on The Theory of Mind. He is famous for the Chinese Room thought experiment: In the experiment, there is a man in a room that neither speaks, nor writes, nor understands Chinese. A slot in the room is used by which cards containing Chinese characters are given to him. Using a book in the room, he gives back responses. Sale argues that even if the responses become perfect, that man cannot understand Chinese. The same could be argued with artificial intelligence and information processing models. In short, his concept of intentionality is lacking. It is missing in the Chinese Room Thought Experiment, and obviously missing in the Information Processing Model (John Searle and Intentionality, 2008). According to Damasio, the computer metaphor for the mind is untenable. Emotions play a powerful role in learning, not just information. Since Cognitive Information Processing Theory leaves emotions out of the equation, it can provide a holistic theory of cognitive development (Antonio Damasio and The Feeling of What Happens, 2008). Conclusion Information Processing Theory is a very useful model that every student of psychology and education should be aware of. It is very understandable and perspicuous since many of the people today understand computers. With this understanding, people will be able to determine how they could better function in a society where we are inundated with so much information, useful or not. In light of the criticisms, however, further research must be conducted to improve the assumptions and applications of Information Processing Theory. References Antonio Damasio and The Feeling of What Happens. (2008). Retrieved 8 March 2009, from http://sparkplug9.com/etec512/2008/09/24/antonio-damasio-and-the-feeling-of-what- happens/. Developmental Theory: Cognitive and Information Processing. (n.d.). Education Encyclopedia. Retrieved 8 March 2009, from http://www.answers.com/topic/developmental-theory- cognitive-and-information-processing. Funderstanding. (n.d.). Piaget. Retrieved 8 March 2009, from http://www.funderstanding.com/content/piaget. Hawkins, Jeff. (2003). On Intelligence. New York: Henry Holt. Cited in Jeff Hawkins On Intelligence. (2008). Retrieved 8 March 2009, from http://sparkplug9.com/etec512/2008/09/25/jeff-hawkins-on-intelligence/ History of Cognitive Psychology. (1997). Retrieved 8 March 2009, from http://www.muskingum.edu/~psych/psycweb/history/cognitiv.htm. Huitt, W. (2003). The information processing approach to cognition. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved 8 March 2009, from http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/infoproc.html Information-Processing Theory. (n.d. a). Encyclopedia of Psychology. Retrieved 8 March 2009, from http://www.enotes.com/gale-psychology-encyclopedia/information-processing- theory. Information-processing theory. (n.d. b). Retrieved 8 March 2009, from http://www.novelguide.com/a/discover/gep_01/gep_01_00341.html. John Searle and Intentionality. (2008). Retrieved 8 March 2009, from http://sparkplug9.com/etec512/2008/09/26/john-searle-and-intentionality/. Omrod, J.E., McDevitt, T.M. (2007). Effects of Heredity and Environment on Intelligence. Child Development and Education. Retrieved 8 March 2009, from http://www.education.com/reference/article/effects-heredity-environment-intelligence/ Premkumar, G., Ramamurthy, K., & Saunders, C. S. (2005). Information processing view of organizations: An exploratory examination of fit in the context of interorganizational relationships. Journal of Management Information Systems, 22(1), 257-294) as cited in http://www.istheory.yorku.ca/OIPT.htm Read More