Different Cognitive Operations - Coursework Example

The contribution of psychological research in understanding the reasons as to why people engage in anti-social behaviour” Any activity that affects the performance or conduct of an individual is designated as behaviour or mental process. Behaviour encompasses different cognitive operations which are essential in learning process, perception and outlook, attention and ability to be alert and attentive, language skills and communication, thoughts and aptitude, emotions, decision making and problem solving skills. Psychology encompasses a thorough understanding of mental and behaviour processes as it aids in being considerate towards brain functioning, communication, interpersonal predispositions, motivation and social conduct along with the physiological as well as neurological predilections, by involving various aspects of human nature, such as developmental process with which an individual is nurtured. This is associated with the level of education, an understanding towards others, the outlook and insight of the individual (A rational model of the effects of distributional information on feature learning). One of the key features of psychology includes cognitive studies, as it provides an assessment of mental processes, it empowers the psychologist to understand the attitude as well as propensity of the individual. Cognitive understanding deals with the thoughts of the individual and hence directly influences behaviour of the individual. In cases where the normal psychology of the individual is disturbed, the personality is altered and hence the self-esteem, the ego is also modified culminating into the development of abnormal psychology which require appropriate psychoanalysis. The present article deals with the psychological research in understanding the reasons as to why people engage in anti-social behaviour, in terms of neurological implications, cognitive as well as social perspectives. Introduction As an individual matures, perception and understanding about the circumstances and situations also augments. Some may have the intellect to understand others, learn about the nature and circumstances, react to an event in the more pleasing manner while others tend to be short tempered and reactionary towards a situation and display rage and anguish. In the present scenario where competition is hard-hitting and individuals are chip in a career race, an approach is desired where judgmental move toward attitude could be worked well. One has to be critical in displaying cognitive behaviour towards enhanced memory power, quick and appropriate decision making temperament, organization of educational program to boost learning power. Darwins theory is applicable in this aspect too "Survival of the fittest". An individual who is alert, knowledgeable, possess insight and depth to react towards a fastidious situation gains confidence of others along with the appreciation and approach. On the other hand individuals lacking understanding, knowledge, problem solving skills and appropriate decisive power display poor mental process and lag in accomplishments. In order to prove their self-worth such individuals tend to incline towards the anti-social temperament and predisposition. According to Berger (2003), antisocial behaviour encompasses a kind of behaviour that is deficient in contemplations or thoughtfulness for others, which may bring devastating consequences in the society. Such behaviour could be either due to mal-intentions or occur due to gross negligence, resulting in the serious legal offence. Government has set rules and laws to deal with such anti-social behaviour. Observations reveal that aggression displayed by the child or injustice being witnessed by the kid right in the formative years may influence the psychology of the child. Persistence of such characteristics may lead to an altered psychological development right from the childhood leading to anxiety, irascible, hot-tempered attitude. Antisocial behaviour is different from the socialization as it involves non-adherence to the rules and regulations set by the society for a peaceful co-existence. Anti-social behaviour may result in the criminal temperament. According to The Crime and Disorder Act 1998, half of the crimes committed is because of anti-social behaviour disorder persisting in the individuals and thus, antisocial behaviour could be defined as "Behaviour that caused or was likely to cause harassment, alarm or distress to one or more persons not of the same household as the perpetrator" (Web: Anti-social Behaviour). The characteristics may onset in the childhood due to some abuse or injustice faced by the individual, inculcating the seeds of hatred, anguish and rebellious nature. These childhood experiences have lasting implications and alter the personality of the individual. It may be the resultant of adolescent rage or rebellious temperament of an adulthood. Depending upon the age, antisocial behaviour is termed as conduct disorder when observed in childhood, antisocial personality disorder, when observed in adults. Studies highlight that conduct disorders if seed in early stages of life, earlier to puberty are likely to prolong till the adulthood which is displayed in the form of aggression, on the contrary of the anti-social temperament develops after puberty, rehabilitation chances are high and a child may not continue with the antisocial behaviour in the adulthood. In the present scenario, antisocial behaviour is augmenting because of the prevailing stress, cut-throat competition and wager to be ahead in the competition. To justify self-worth, individuals are crossing any boundaries leaving room for frustration, anguish as well as dissatisfaction for others, especially for those who follow the path of truth and honesty, making them to rethink "honesty pays". All these environmental influences inculcate the seeds of anti-social temperament. Augmenting competition and inability to prove oneself is the root cause of escalating violence in school children. Researchers could not establish any genetic link for the anti-social behaviour, but it reveals that the incoherent parenting and a dangle from extreme lenience to severe castigation may result in altering the personality of the child, highlighting the fact that antisocial behaviour is the resultant of environmental and well as circumstances driven rather than genetic predisposition (What is anti-social behaviour?). The present article discusses the three most prevailing aspects of anti-social behaviour encompassing- (a) Neural perspectives, (b) Cognitive perspectives, (c) Social perspectives. Neural Perspectives Psychology is the Science that provides an insight towards logical thinking with high consideration to humane and this understanding persisted since the dawn of human civilization. Psychology thus, provides a perception about the behaviour of the individual and science could be applied to enhance the personality and how well an individual be groomed to have a sound and congenial influence on the society, thereby involving social ambience of the person. Besides the fact that lot of research has been carried out we are still at the tip of the iceberg to further dwell towards the understanding of psychology. Considering this view as of paramount significance, a new field of neuroscience has emerged to examine the cognitive neuroscience of social behaviour, an amalgamation of sociobiology and evolutionary psychology together with social psychology. Neuroscience approaches reconciliation between biological and psychological aspects of social behaviour. The neural parameters reveal both innate, automatic and cognitively impenetrable methods together with acquired, contextual and volitional aspects that encompass self-regulation (Adolphs, 1994). With the advent in science and technology research has been carried out in various aspects of life, techniques are present to analyse the DNA and genes and their related outcomes that play vital role in the deficiency diseases, genetic disorders, chromosomal anomalies, mechanisms that guide the interaction of microbes with various tissues, altering their morphology or physiology, or lack/ excess of hormone synthesis in the body, but till date what accounts for the behaviour if the individual could not be deciphered to a greater extent. the neural basis of social behaviour is yet to be studied in details. Although studies have been carried out to identify compilations of procedures and neural structures that are responsible for our outlook and decisions causing social motivation (Adolphs, 1994). Although neural imaging has been performed by neuroscientists (Logothetis, 2008) and thereafter analyzed by various psychologists (Hare, 2008) to conclude that neuroimaging techniques though provide complete picture of the brain but are incapable of identifying what is going on in the brain of the individuals head with respect to a particular aspect. According to Logothetis, (2008), "The limitations of fMRI are not related to physics or poor engineering, and are unlikely to be resolved by increasing the sophistication and power of the scanners; they are instead due to the circuitry and functional organization of the brain, as well as the inappropriate experimental protocols that ignore this organization. The fMRI signal cannot easily differentiate between function-specific processing and neuromodulation, between bottom-up and top-down signals, and it may potentially confuse excitation and inhibition. The magnitude of the fMRI signal cannot be quantified to reflect accurately differences between brain regions or within tasks within the same regions" (Logothetis, 2008). The over-inference of neuroimaging is referred by Lynch, (2009) as Neuro-revolution in the world and the scope of such neuro-revolution was measured by various scientists across the world which is imperative in providing the facts related with the neuro-science involving neuro-anthropology, neuro-philosophy, neuro-ethics, neuro-economics, neuro-aesthetics (Choudhury, et al, 2009; Choudhury & Kirmayer, 2009). An outline could be procured from the critical neuroscience, where neuroscience correlates with the social aspects of life. A new paradigm of science has been germinated called new "neurobiologism" involving various academic disciplines and cultural background. In some perspectives they are related to the psychological development of the individual, thus neurological development and phenomenon related with addiction, adolescence, autism and depression could be correlated, imposing challenges to the neuroscience to correlate with the psychological implications. An understanding for how brain interacts and modulates in a given cultural environment (Lock, 2001). Cognitive perspectives According to Neisser (1967), cognition involves "all processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used. It is concerned with these processes even when they operate in the absence of relevant stimulation, as in images and hallucinations... Given such a sweeping definition, it is apparent that cognition is involved in everything a human being might possibly do; that every psychological phenomenon is a cognitive phenomenon." In order to understand the mind process of an individual an insight about the cognitive psychology is essential (What is cognitive psychology?). Cognitive psychology was separated from behaviourism after 1950s, as it focuses on the awareness, remembrance and trouble resolving expertise. The ability or the proficiency to react to a given situation defines the cognitive temperament or the cognitive psychology of the individual. Individuals express in a varied manner towards different circumstances, these situations could serve to be motivation or emotional sequences. Such situations alter the perception and outlook of the individual and at times are deep seated in the subconscious mind, these emotions or feelings may at times make a person to react with the situation in a different manner, may be as a result of previous experience which alters the personal disposition of the individual and hence it creates complications for the individual to communicate as well as interpret others behaviour and emotions. Altered moods affects ones ability to concentrate and memorize influencing mental as well as corporal actions (Adolphs, 1994). Utility of Mind process- Mind processes are essentially imperative to grasp the situation and thinking aptitude of others. Mind processes helps an individual to take hold of or grapple industrial organization, move of the competitor, getting ahead in the augmenting competition, designing curriculum, learning temperament, memory skill enhancement to survive in the mounting competition. Various physiological (biological) processes are regulated by means of genetic and cellular processes responsible for attitude, memory skills and learning temperament (Pinel, 2010). Numerous psychologists have proposed methodologies to enhance the memory skills. According to Miller (1956), seven is the magic number that could test the memory presentation of the individual. Other researchers have also come up to provide people with various skills to enhance their decision making power, learning temperament and interpersonal skills to reduce jealousy from competitively ahead individuals, peers and enhance the abilities to cope with the environment and survive without alteration in the behaviour. A sound physical and mental health, positivity in approach leads to potentially high mental activity and enhanced mental processes and prevents from stress and other associated ailments (Leichsenring, 2003). As the age progresses the experience and perception about the situation becomes more accurate. It also depends on the family atmosphere, education level of the parents, school approach towards the developing child psychology, along with other evolutionary changes that are age and development linked encompassing language skills and memory (Myers, 2004). Cross- culture psychology is also involved in defining the behaviour as well as mental processes. It displays the behaviour of an individual in culturally different atmosphere, as culture tend to alter psychology. Physiological conditions such as psychopathology, nervousness and hopelessness could be associated with mental processes in different culture and language, the individuals temperament and adjusting behaviour paves the way for the survival under odd situations (Gielen, 2008). The most imperative characteristic of behaviour predisposition is unconscious motives, childhood experiences, conflicts, developmental issues, nurture that defines nature of the child and hence the individual. All these factors together are responsible for a congenial development as well as intellectual and paramount mental process as well as behavioural predisposition. It is highly imperative to have a peaceful, progressive and motivating atmosphere for the absolute development of mental process (Simply Psychology). Social Perspectives Human behaviour is the depiction of the cultural background, outlook, feelings, ethics, reputation, ability to practise and follow, inheritance, family norms, upbringing, intimidation, abuses that has been faced in the past. Some of the predispositions could be common due to cultural background but some other behaviour could be abnormal or unusual and are not acceptable by the social norms. Behaviour is therefore social deeds that an individual performs, on the other hand social behaviour is the kind of attitude being displayed at others and again this also possesses social norms and limits. Social behaviour displays the level of education that an individual possesses, the psychological analysis an individual can make, the anthropology and maturity that an individual acquire over the time to deal with a given situation. Social psychology therefore deals with the utilization of technology and the scientific methodology available to understand the social power, social discernment and social dealings and communications ( Social Psychology, 1). According to Allport (1924), "An attempt to understand how the thoughts, feelings, and behaviours of an individual are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others" (Social Psychology- 2). Social influence affects the individual and under some circumstances an individual amends certain characteristics due to varied factors such as- a. Conformity- An alteration in the behaviour is performed due to the pressure either from higher authorities or from market or from work place or there is a demand to change the attitude for children or family. b. Audience Inhibition- It displays the kind of inhibition that an individual displays in front of others. c. Pluralistic ignorant behaviour- where a person does not perform a deed or take any action as long as it does not become the necessity. At the eleventh hour the individual takes the action and prior to this an ignorant behaviour is being displayed. d. Diffusion of responsibility- shifting responsibility on others or sharing the accountability so that the whole burden does not come on self. Such behaviour patterns are categorized as bystander intervention or bystander apathy, indicating that lonely individual seek out for help while if the individuals stay in group they do not display such interventions. It also depicts the lack of confidence in the individual to perform any action (Social Influence). Psychology is an amalgamation of various aspects of many scientific and social disciplines encompassing biology, clinical aspects, cognitive aspects, any kind of comparative aspects, developmental aspects of an organism, or if it is related to the education or any kind of organizational working atmosphere and hierarchical motive, and it helps an individual to enhance the personality and thus the social predisposition. Study of psychology encompass theories of psychology. The following theories have been postulated to pursue the studies of psychology: Behavioural Theories: This is solely directed to the behaviour of an individual. Behaviour of any individual are attained through habituation and training. As the child grows from infant to a childhood stage, a child stars grasping his immediate surroundings, the affection and attention that he gains from every member in his vicinity. In these formative years, behaviour and the social interaction with the society paves the way for grooming the personality of the child. It is essential that alterations be made in the behaviour when unhealthy attitude is observed. In some grave cases repeated motivation to change the behaviour is required which may or may not be related to therapeutic issues (Cavella). Cognitive Theories: Numerous emotions encompassing happiness, anguish, fright, surprise, sorrow etc. involves a deep insight to the internal state of mind. This is related to the motivation which is essential for persuasion of everyday tasks. It encompasses the ability to deal with the issues or problems that an individual encounters to meet everyday pursuits. The solution to the problem depends upon the logical and rationale thinking, the ability to reach to the conclusion, the ability to think in a constructive and innovative manner and how appropriate that decision is to make positive modifications. This is essential in industrial scenario where the cognitive ability is imperative in taking an organization to its highest position or if any illogical or irrelevant venture is made it may result in unfavourable situations (Cavella). Developmental Theories: The complete growth, progress and expansion encompass development. It is associated with the advances in learning processes. Developmental theory is centred around the individual development and also the collective development of the group or an organization as a whole. It defines the motives and objectives which are mandatory for the development of the individual, personality and also for the development of the mob or any working place. Development is not attributed to any one individual when talking in terms of organization but it is the combined contribution of the entire group. Form complete development any kind of conflicts are to be avoided and this requires great psychological unanimity (Cavella). Social Psychological Theories: It helps the individual to comprehend, appreciate and elucidate social behaviour of an individual and also of the organization with people with whom they are associated. It also encompass social influence, affection and social interaction (Cavella). Based on these established facts human behaviour is classified as The culture and traditions are responsible for the appropriate grooming of the individual and hence influence the outlook of the human beings residing in that particular area. Explanation does encompass qualitative and quantitative experiments and protocols that are required to be followed when undertaking a psychotherapy (Models of Understanding Human Behaviour). Modifications in behaviour or any kind of alterations could result in possibilities of improvements in the activities of an individual or it may result in some unexpected behaviour which is not accepted or is unhealthy. These alterations are always done under moral and ethical limitations. Psychology challenge to voluntarily persuade persons and crowds to transform activities for enduring strong achievements and success. Individuality and expansion conjecture diverge on the ways to persuade activities transformation. It is essential to have a repetitive imposition of positive thoughts and beliefs from time to time to keep an individual in the state of altered state of mind and to distract an individual from the negative influences. Thus psychology finds its ways in the field of education, communal modifications and managerial constitutions to extract favoured activities and approaches. Every aspect of life or studies has their own limitations. The portrayal of any individual is insignificant in conducting an analysis of the entire group. Thus experiments performed under one set of conditions will not hold good for every related conditions (Adolphs, 1994). Policy Changes in the society and social norms is a long-term alterations and require knowledge and understanding but it may result in mismatches between the research that can be practically implemented in the society and what is produced by the society, termed as relevance gaps (Nightingale & Scott, 2007). This could be converted into a meaningful research that can be implemented through current structures for governing research, which need to be appropriate, should enhance the reputation and value system of the academy, and construct a prevalent perception that is highly relevant. Innovation in the discipline and to value judgments along with the structural alterations could influence the direction of academic research. Funding agencies must lay the policy in the direction of meaningful as well as productive research and therefore guidelines are proposed to overcome the research frauds and provide the society with a beneficial outcome (Nightingale & Scott, 2007). Conclusion Psychology is the Science that create an understanding towards a logical thinking, an ability in keeping humane in concise. It is the way where an understanding is built up about the behaviour of a person, and methods could be devised to enhance what is lacking in the personality and how well an individual be groomed to have a sound and congenial influence on the society or influence social ambience of the individual. Besides the fact that a lot of research has been carried out we are still at the tip of the iceberg to further dwell towards the understanding of psychology. So far an immense collection of theories that have been postulated over the years have been made and studied along with various protocols and experiments that have been performed to resolve behaviour issues. Theories postulated are for different kinds of behaviour and not the same for all kinds of behavioural issues. The Behavioural Model emphasize on the fact how the environment shapes the personality of the individual, it emphasizes on the fact that there are certain motivational factors that provide an impact on the individuals behaviour, it came into picture when introspection and psychoanalysis were prevalent and laid prominence on observed stimuli and behaviour responses. The present article highlights the fact that psychology of the individual is the amalgamation of various aspects involving neural perspectives, cognitive as well as social perspectives. All these are responsible to shape the personality and behaviour of the individual as well as social predicament. Based on these parameters the social predisposition of the individual is decided to be social or anti-social. For the cognitive development of the society it is essential to analyse the neuronal perspectives of the individual so that appropriate social as well as cognitive measures could be formulated to alter the behaviour. Such an approach is highly desired in the current social scenario to eliminate terrorism as well as to built a congenial and progressive social environment not only for anti-social individuals but also to prevent individuals from turning anti-social. Promoting a healthy environment of learning, education, competition leaves little room for the anguish and agony, "equal opportunity for all" is required to be implemented in real sense to minimize the anti-social behaviour. References 1. Adolphs, R., Tranel, D., Damasio, H., Damasio, A. (1994). Impaired recognition of emotion in facial expressions following bilateral damage of the human amygdala. 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