The Assessment of Language and Communication - Coursework Example

Language and Communication Considering language and communication, it seems all children are born withthe ability to learn and learn quickly various methods of connecting with their caregivers and others. This type of communication is necessarily based on physical actions and tone of cry when the child is very small, but as they grow older, children begin to demonstrate that they understand gestures and the words of others even before they have voiced their first word. According to Gordon Wells (1986), the entire function of learning language and interacting socially is necessary in order to make connections with other people and help the individual make sense of their experiences. “Language occurs through an interaction among genes (which hold innate tendencies to communicate and be sociable), environment, and the child’s own thinking abilities” (Genishi, 2006). While some of this behavior can be attributed to the child’s natural imitation of the caregivers, there remain aspects to the way language and communication develops that haven’t yet been sufficiently explained. Through this paper, the various terms used to discuss language development will be identified followed by discussion of the various parts and components of language that a child must master. This will lead to investigation of how children seem to have an innate switch designed to facilitate language development and the theories that have evolved. Some activities that children and their parents may engage in that might help foster language and communication development will be discussed along with other factors that may contribute to development. Common mistakes shared by children as they learn how to communicate for the first time provide clues as to how language development progresses and contribute to a discussion of the average stages of language development exhibited among young children. Generally speaking, language is nothing more than a set of symbols, usually auditory, that are commonly understood and are used to share or warehouse information (Eccardt, 2003). “The symbols are words, and their meanings cover everything we humans deal with … Generally, the above definition puts the label ‘language’ on English, Spanish, Chinese, etc. It also covers sign languages for deaf people” (Eccardt, 2003). This definition does not necessarily include the alphabet, writing or other forms of mechanical expression. On the other hand, most experts define the term communication as a method of conveying meaning through the use of diverse channels. These tools can include language, gestures, written words or other symbols. “There are three key elements in this definition: process, meaning and message … Note that ‘process’ is a verb of action. Somebody does something. That ‘doing something’ involves meaning and messages … Meaning is a subjective experience in our lives … Messages contain coded meaning and allow us to express or convey the meaning within us. Messages require rules like syntax and semantics” (Booth-Butterfield, 2007). Within this system, several elements must be mastered. Syntax and semantics, which are elements of language as well as communication, will be discussed in a moment along with other elements of language. The scientific study that brings all of these concepts into a conceptual whole regarding how language and communication are developed is known as linguistics. In order to participate in language or to be able to adequately express oneself to others, children must learn five basic elements of language conjointly. These elements are known as phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. Every known language in the world is comprised of these five elements. “Language acquisition progresses across these components with increasing quantity (e.g. sounds, words, and sentence length) and gradual refinement, and understanding of the subtler and more complex points of usage (e.g. using ‘taught’ rather than ‘teached’)” (Popp, 2004: 41). A ‘phoneme’ is a specific sound which can refer to the sound associated with a particular letter like /t/ or the sound associated with a specific group of letters /ch/. The field of study that investigates the basic speech patterns of different languages or dialects and the rules of pronunciation is known as phonology (Snow et al, 2002: 22). This level of language study exists at the very basics of language development. The next step is morphology in which these small sounds take on new meaning. Examples of this would be small words like ‘dot’ and the additional meanings of prefixes and affixes ‘dotted’ or ‘dots’. Grammar, word order and other rules regarding how sentences are formed is the property of syntax. Semantics refers to the meaning behind the words, introducing the abstract concept of levels of meaning within a sentence. “It is our understanding of semantics that allows us to recognize that someone who is ‘green with envy’ has not changed hue, or that ‘having cold feet’ has less to do with the appendage at the end of our legs and more to do with our anxiety about a new experience” (Popp, 2004: 42). Tone of voice, style of speech, individual modes of expression and ‘unofficial’ language usage fall within the context of pragmatics. “The way we speak to our parents is not the same as the way we interact with a sibling, for example” (Popp, 2004: 42). Because of their developmental stages, most researchers tend to focus only on phonology (sounds), syntactical development (grammar usage) and the progression of semantics (the understanding of levels of meaning) when studying young children. The idea that children might be born with the ability to learn language from the people around them was argued perhaps best by Noam Chomsky, who felt children had a Universal Grammar hard-wired into them that helped them acquire their first language within their first three years of life. “As a materialist he is required to believe that this grammar is somehow concealed in the physical workings of the brain itself, and that it is the end-product of a succession of evolutionary accidents ... In accepting [these assumptions], he is faced with the task of explaining how this Universal Grammar might operate. He does this, as do materialists the world over, by making use of mechanistic imagery” (Cruse, 2007). Although this idea was harshly criticized, new research seems to be supporting this idea. In the article “Born to Speak” (1998), studies were cited that indicated children who had never been taught complex interpretations were able to make their own assessments as early as age 3. While the answer to whether children are born with an inherent tool to help them learn language may continue to be debated for many years, the normal development of language is children has been shown to be dependent on several other factors as well. Theories regarding how children learn how to communicate have been formed in just about every field of science. Among the behaviorists, B.F. Skinner suggests that learning is a function of change in overt behavior (Skinner, 1953). His theory regarding positive behavior reinforcement indicate that when a child learns that repetition of the sound ‘ma’ into ‘ma-ma’ earns him a warm hug as reward, he will be more inclined to repeat that behavior the next time he wants a warm hug. Thus, language development occurs as a process of the child making the association with the behavior (hey, saying ma-ma earns a hug), the reinforcement of the expected behavior (I said ma-ma and I got a hug!) and imitation (I’m going to say ma-ma again so I can have a hug). Cognitive theories about language development such as those advocated by Schank (1975), Ausubel (1963) and Landa (1974) focus on concepts of meaning, rule structure and schema. Hatch (1983) and Vygotsky (Wertsch, 1985) suggest that children learn most of their language from simply participating in it. As they interact with others, they learn and expand on their knowledge intuitively. According to Jerome Bruner, there is a “plausible hypothesis that the evolution of play might be a major precursor to the emergence of language and symbolic behavior in higher primates and man” (1976: 21). Without a clear idea of how language and communication develops, it comes as no surprise that there are several conflicting ideas of how development can best be encouraged. Several specific behaviors have been identified as fostering language development, but how best to introduce or implement these behaviors for greatest effect remains debated. While some studies have suggested that “infants rely heavily on segmenting longer utterances into their individual words,” a study conducted by Michael Brent indicated that infants younger than 15 months learn those words their mothers use in isolation much faster than words that are included in longer sentence streams (“Parents’ Instinct”, 2001). Regardless of whether single words or coherent sentences are the most appropriate means of speaking to an infant, the concept that parents have a tremendous impact upon their children’s rates of language development and ability to communicate has been proven. “Parents do make a difference … The stimulation parents and other caregivers provide in the first three years sets the stage for effective, productive communication skills that will last a lifetime” (“Baby Talk”, 1999). Children who are encouraged to chatter with others, are engaged in behavior that fosters their language development and encourages the development of further communication skills. As they play with others, their desire to communicate their experiences and ideas becomes greater and greater and they begin to learn new words, correct their syntactical mistakes and work to perfect their pronunciation for better understanding. Environment can affect language and communication development in either positive or negative ways. One environmental factor in the rate of a child’s language development depends on the IQ levels of the parents. While this may be partially due to genetic predispositions for faster language acquisition, it is also true that parents with higher IQs or higher levels of education have a greater tendency to present their children with stimulating materials to play with as well as realizing the importance of providing enriched activities. Parents without high levels of education or naturally high IQs do not always realize they are raising their children in an intellectually or linguistically impoverished environment (Harms, 1998). It is primarily for this reason that children who live in poverty may have more difficulty in mastering language. In addition to the lack of stimulation, these children generally experience less interaction with their parents and generally don’t have the same nutritional quality that fosters their biological development, including development in certain key areas of the brain. Television has become the main method of interaction for many of these children, which does not provide them with the necessary interactivity of a personal conversation. Positive environmental factors include toys and activities that encourage children to explore and the focused attention of an adult willing to talk with the child about feelings and provide direction (“The Early Years”, 2000). These positives and negative aspects of environmental factors represent the statistical tendencies of the various types of environments that contribute in whichever way toward language development, but do not necessarily reflect the overall rule. Overall, children who are provided a warm, safe, loving environment, who are encouraged to use their imaginations and discuss their ideas with others with have relatively similar advantages regardless of their economic or social condition. There are plenty of fun activities that adults can do with children to help them develop their vocabulary while encouraging them to interact (Honig, 1989). For example, an adult can talk a child through various activities as they’re being performed – ‘I’m walking to the door now, I’m taking another step’. Talking through the steps of a more complicated procedure helps children develop cognitive skills as well as ideas of syntax. Guessing games that pantomime an action that the child needs to guess develops verbal and non-verbal skills at the same time. A common mistake parents make in interacting with a child is in talking to them as a child rather than incorporating adult conversational techniques such as taking turns, meeting eyes and using appropriate vocabulary (Honig, 1989). By paying attention to what a child is saying, adults not only provide children with the behavioral incentive to continue participating in this behavior, but can also lead to opportunities for expanding the child’s vocabulary and cognitive abilities. To encourage children to participate in conversations, adults can suggest the child help them make up a story or talk about how they feel about something. It should be remembered that these activities should be fun in order to produce positive feelings and results. Accompanying any of these activities with music, dancing or tapping our rhythms will help to catch the child’s attention and encourage them to participate more. When the activity begins to feel like an assignment or work, it is no longer rewarding and can begin to have negative effects. To encourage life-long language learning and participation, parents should read to their children from an early age (Honig, 1989). Children the world over make similar mistakes while learning their native language. These mistakes seem to occur similarly in every language even though the specific words and forms are necessarily different. ‘Overregularization’ refers to young children’s tendency to “apply past tense suffixes of regular verbs to irregular verbs” (Strobel, 1993). In English, children might say they ‘goed’ to school. “Children later learn the correct forms, although some errors, like digged instead of dug, can persist until high school” (Strobel, 1993). Syntax of question order is another common error shared by children the world over. “The most common errors are failure to include an auxiliary and placement of the auxiliary after, rather than before, the subject” (Valian & Casey, 2003: 118) such as in the question “When Bobby can play?” Mistakes in pronunciation and enunciation are usually a natural part of the development process as well, but can also be an indication of other issues such as a specific motor difficulty or a hearing impediment. Regardless of the steps taken to encourage language and communication development at a very young age, children do tend to develop along a consistent and predictable acquisition process, most of which occurs before the age of 4. The process begins with recognition of name and the attempts to make vocalizations at around six months of age. At this stage, infants typically start responding to voices alone and exhibit signs of distinguishing between vocal tones. By the time the child is one year old, he or she can probably use one or more words with true meaning and understand simple instructions (“Language Development”, 2006). By the time the child is a year and a half, he is aware of the value of speech and has begun working on incorporating inflection in his own verbalizations, which can include as many as 20 different words that the child will repeat over and over again. Two year olds are known as very talkative creatures who expand their vocabularies daily, are beginning to speak in short sentences and are increasingly understandable to the adults around them. While they still usually have difficulty with modulating rhythm, volume and pitch, they are becoming more and more capable of responding appropriately to questions and instructions (“Language Development”, 2006). By the time the child is three, they can usually make themselves understood by most adults and continue to expand their vocabulary at exponential rates. They can usually carry on a conversation with small sentences and are communicative about the way that they’re feeling. With the ability to pronounce more and more words correctly, large vocabularies that include the names of most of the basic objects, numbers, animals and colors and the ability to use prepositions, four year olds are already equipped with most of the tools they will need to master their language. The large questions regarding how language and communication develops have still not been answered to anyone’s satisfaction just as the question of whether language develops from genetic predisposition or environmental factors has not yet been settled, but research has shown that there are many behaviors that can contribute to better language development and communication especially when children are very young. By identifying the normal process of language development in children, parents and caregivers can begin to recognize problems with development early and perhaps find ways of correcting or working around these issues before the child loses confidence in his or her abilities to communicate. Some of these issues may include hearing impairment or poor motor development. While it seems obvious that children do have some sort of genetic or innate tendencies toward learning language, it is equally obvious that environmental elements can have an equal or greater effect on whether a child will want to participate in communication. Negative environments can have long-term effects upon the child’s learning outcomes and self-confidence levels while positive environments can foster a love of learning that will encourage the child to become a happy, healthy communicative adult. References Ausubel, D. (1963). The Psychology of Meaningful Verbal Learning. 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(2006). “Young Children’s Oral Language Development.” Child Development Institute. Available March 21, 2007 from < http://academia-research.com/writer/index.php?pg=ordp&e_id=159180> Harms, William. (August 11, 1998). “Ability to Learn Greatly Influenced by Environmental Factors, University of Chicago Study Finds.” University of Chicago News Office. Hatch, E. (1983). Pyscholinguistics: A Second Language Perspective. Rowley, MA: Newbury House. Honig, A.S. (1989). “Talk, Read, Joke, Make Friends: Language Powers for Children.” Day Care and Early Education. Vol. 16, N. 4, pp. 14-17. Landa, L. (1974). Algorithmization in Learning and Instruction. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. “Language Development in Children.” (2006). Child Development Institute. Available March 22, 2007 from “Parents’ Instinctive Use of Isolated Words may Help Babies Learn Language.” (February 28, 2001). Science Daily News. Washington University in St. Louis. Available March 22, 2007 from Popp, Patricia. (December 2004). Chapter 5. Reading on the Go! Students who are Highly Mobile and Reading Instruction. Greensboro, NC: National Center for Homeless Education. Schank, R.C. (1975). Conceptual Information Processing. New York: Elsevier. Skinner, B.F. (1953). Science and Human Behavior. New York: Macmillan. Snow, C.; Burns, S. & Griffin, P. (Eds.). (2001). Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children. (6th Printing). Committee on the Prevention of Reading Difficulties in Young Children. National Research Council. Washington D.C.: National Academy Press. Strobel, Gabrielle. (February 10, 1993). “Neural Networks Stumble Across Same Mistakes as Children in Learning Language.” Stanford University. Valian, Virginia & Casey, Lyman. (2003). “Young Children’s Acquisition of Wh-questions: The Role of Structured Input.” Journal of Child Languages. Vol. 30, pp. 117-143. Wells, G. (1986). The Meaning Makers: Children Learning Language and Using Language to Learn. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Educational Books. Wertsch, J.V. (1985). Cultural, Communication, and Cognition: Vygotskian Perspectives. Cambridge University Press. Read More