Theories of Career Choice and Development - Example

THE THEORIES OF CAREER CHOICE AND DEVELOPMENT. Student Name: Student ID: Lecturer: Course: Assignment: Date of Submission: The purposes and evaluation of Theory. Career development is a long life pathway that partakes sociological, educational, psychological, economic cultural and economic factors that influence a person’s adjustment to, choice of , and improvement of the occupations which when combined contribute to their careers. The process of a career development is indeed a complex one, therefore there are theories to give us roadmaps towards the career choices and prefers. (Krumbottz 1994) .States that the psychological theories which are perceived to be good are not accurate though they have well defined terms and construct that is easily interpreted by the researchers and practitioners. A good theory clearly defines the process of career development that is inclusive to all the groups including people of different cultures, men and women and persons with various socioeconomic statuses while well constructed theories assist individuals understand why other people will choose careers and later feel dissatisfied. History of Career Development Theorizing. The earlier publications attempts in the development of theories of career choice and development have been revised by the latest theories of the same that makes the subject of our discussion in this paper and these theories include. 1. Holland theory, 1997 2. Super, 1990 3. Lofquist and Dawis, (1991, 1996) 4. Lent, Brown and Hackett, (1995, 1996, 2002) 5. Gottfredson, (1981, 1996) The comparisons and the contrasts of the trait factor theories. Theory for special groups These theories have become relevant because they have the characteristic of a ‘good’ theory despite each one of them having a limitation. For example the theory for the special groups (Super, 1953) had their basic orientation to the male whites it was found inadequate for interpretation of career choice and development of women and to extension males and females in other states a part from Europe. The two theories of Super (1990) and Holland (1997), objected that this criticisms were unacceptable. This prompted Super make alterations to his theory to give room to the transforming career patterns for women though this effort has been met with contention. Astin’s (1997) psycho sociological structure of work behavior and career choice only attracted less supporters. Gial Hackett and Nancy Betz focused in addressing the functions of self-efficiency in women’s career choices, now Hackett theory have developed to amore comprehensive one that addresses the social cognitive elements that influence the development of career by both women and men. (Brown, Lent and Hackett, 1995, 1996, 2002). Funnily, a (Betz and Fitzgerald, 1994) theories lament on the applications of these theories has having the limitation to cater for the minority groups of people such lesbian and gay persons. If the career development theory is unintentionally racist? Sue and Sue (2000), and Pedersen (1991) have suggested that many of the theories which are being implemented in the couching programs for the psychologists , professional counselors and other practitioners are culturally oppressive since they are deeply rooted in the ideologies that have strong Eurocentric believes. The philosophy of the Western European is that individuals should make independent decisions in regard to their career choices and this is a cultural belief originating from the principle that individuals are the most important social unit. (Carter, 1991). Wearers Native Americans have the belief that group welfare should be an individual’s concern. Dawis (1996, Gottfredson (1996)) concludes on their assumption that satisfaction in work is the result of a persons’ interaction with her or his work environment. It appears entirely that satisfaction in work and factors such as attainment in an individuals career are connected to other complexes of variables such group or family approval of the career choice. Hartung, (2002) depicts the need to transform from the monocultural approach towards a perspective that is multicultural and further emphasizes that monocultural theories such as the ones for Lentz and Hackett ,(1996) to not have the cultural validity. And again we cannot entirely dispute their theories as not appropriate because cultural minorities could be based on phenotypic characteristics of persons. It is therefore unethical mistake to apply theories of any kind without evaluating their cultural perspective first on the person. Holland’s theory of Vocational Choice Holland’s career choice and development is based on these assumptions. a) The personality of an individual is the primary element in vocational choice. b) Personality inventories are as a result of interest inventories. c) The stereotypical views developed by an individual regarding career, are relevant psychologically. Therefore to be satisfied and successful in any career, it is paramount to choose a job that will be congruent with your personality and a work environment that have identical features like your own. A congruent environment-person match presumably yields higher vocational achievements, greater academic achievements, stable vocational choice and higher satisfaction. Holland made an occupational system of classification on the basis of the environmental construct. The difference it has from others is lacking of cultural validity and is only suitable to individuals whose worldviews do not oppose those of the dominant culture. The main aim of Holland’s theory is to assist clients to identify jobs which encompass fellow workers with similar characteristics. His method has the general support of the researchers and seems to be working to both female and male together with individuals with various cultural backgrounds. Holland work captures the concept of all the groups while Arnold (2004) suggests that the concept of congruent should also touch on the minority groups and white people. Theory of Work adjustment. The core of this assumption is that persons have two kinds of needs. The survival or the biological needs like; food, social acceptance and the psychological needs and these needs create the urge for fulfillment resulting to volitional behavior. The second assumption of this theory is that work environment has ‘requirements’. So it’s the duty of both the individual and the environment to build a mechanism in order to satisfy the needs and when this is achieved, a correspondence is in existence. People will choose these occupations with the assumption that the job will offer satisfaction to their needs and vice vase workers are recruited by the assumption that their skills will meet the needs of the work environment. This assumption has three variables, the aptitude, the skill and the personality structure. The (TWA) can be used for both male and female, though the empirical data available is not adequate to authenticate the observations. Sharf (2002), says that the one setback of this theory the processes for testing takes very many hours and the estimates must be substituted with the actual results in adults. This theory does not take into consideration the cultural values and the way they associate with the work values and the work needs. Further to this still racial minorities and cultural inventories are not resolved juts like in the case of Holland’s theory of vocational choice. Super’s Life span, Life Space Theory. According the Super’s theory, people vary in their personalities and abilities, interests, values, self-concept and traits. These principles are broadly recognized and accepted by other theories. Although many people could look like in most traits, the peculiar uniqueness in each person so apparent in their weaknesses and strengths and individuals get qualified by these characteristics. Super further retaliates that every job needs a characteristic pattern of personality trait and abilities and should be sufficiently wide to allow both group of individuals in each job and some variety of jobs for each persons. Super’ work focuses on stimulating career maturity, in helping clients create and implement a job self-concept and his theory is appealing to all the groups unlike the theory of Holland’s that majorly concentrated in career choice development for the male whites though these individuals should embrace some independent social values. Serifaca (1995) study shows contrast since this may make people have a dependent decision-making type. And this is only be relevant to people who have a collateral social values. Gettfredson’s Theory of Circumscription and Compromise. This theory majors on career aspirations are developed. It has these assumptions, a) The process of career development begins at childhood b) Ones self concept is implemented through career aspirations. c) Job satisfaction depends on how the career is congruent with ones self perception. Gottfredson’s theory focuses on the diagnosis of the developmental problems and has a clear implication in career counseling. Her theory addresses both the racial and ethnic minority issues and people with heterosexual orientation which Super’s theory was unable to interpret. Summary. There are five theories of career choice and development, two are developmental theory, and they include Super’s Life span, Life Space Theory and Gottfredson’s Theory of Circumscription and Compromise which are designed to refute stereotypes of sex roles and the limitations in choices of jobs on the basis of social status. They outline on complete exploration on the entire wall of occupations to object prejudice circumscription and to provide platform for occupational choices. The other three form the trait and factor perspective in career choice. All the five theories apart from Value-based theory emphasized the doctrine that a person holds an independent social value and will decide on their own career occupations.. The career of today will be protean, a career that is individual driven not by the organization and be reinvented by people time by time as the work environment and people continue to change as these theory of work puts it that individuals to focus on the psychological success not the vertical success. All the theories conquer with career choice development as lifelong unfolding series of identity change and unstopping learning process and all these are best achieved through people interacting with others (reflected in the mutuality, interdependence, and reciprocity) 2. In comparing and contrasting the Trait-and-type perspectives and the Cognitive perspectives to understanding personality we look on what trait and type perspective outline as well relating it to the cognitive perspective. We will first focus on Trait-and-type perspectives outlining what it entails by looking at trait and type separately. TRAITS This is a characteristic that an individual possesses as result of his thoughts, actions and feelings which he may have acquired or inherited and furthermore his tendency of reaction ways. We must note that possession of a trait by a particular individual only implies that he reacts only that way in certain situations. Categories of traits Traits have specific categories: Motive Traits: These merely refer to aspirations and achievements that guide a person’s behavior. Ability Traits: These generally refer to a person’s specific skill and capabilities such as perceiving, knowing and sound or unsound reasoning. Temperament traits: these would entail features of energetic tendencies such as optimism and utmost depression. Stylistic traits: The styles of an individual’s behavior which are generally not in tandem with specific tactics whose aims is to achieve a specific goal, they might as well be gestures fall in this category. Traits can present themselves in two dimensions, either by displaying itself in outside surface like aggressive behavior or under the surface where its nature has to be inferred by the observer. TYPE When an individual possesses certain traits that we willingly link their patterns to a certain group of individuals then he prescribes to a personality type. In order to understand this theory we used three topology approaches as shown below. I. Eysenck’s topology. II. Sheldon’s topology III. Four humours. Eysenck’s Topology In this case we have rather second order factors and types not traits in individuals personality, as in the case of extraversion where involvement of biological influences are key to a persona of a given individual. Factors such as psychiatry and psychology utmost abnormal are key. In the ends which are so extreme as regards continuum only few personalities fall into these as in introversion. Sheldon’s Topology Sheldon looks at topology the modern physical way, either in endomorphic, mesomorphic or ectomorphy. In endomorphic where one is stocky not really fat with a soft rounded body large trunked, thick necked with short legs less temper, sociably affectionate. In mesomorphic, bony muscular, assertive temper aggression very noisy and much energy possession. In the case of ectomorphy, fragile body action inhibited temper too retrained, antisocial, and the complex of inferiority. Four Humours A Hippocratic theory back sixteen centuries ago where its alleged that body actually hasfour as in fluids or simply four humours, the black and yellow bile, the phlegm and high blood pressure. To these they allocated different temperaments in order to depict how some abnormalities internally in the form of physical conditions affect the real normal patterns of natural behavior we see in individuals. Cognitive Approach This is where some unique perceptions possessed by individuals and the strategies that are actively based on them actually determines what they do and how they react.as a matter of fact future expectations and past occurrences which is constantly guided by their prominent needs and their day to day needs. To discuss this we need some of the below relevant concepts: Internal-external locus of control. Independency-dependency of the field. Sensation-seeking. Self monitoring. Internal-external locus of control Early behavioral theorists took that this notion because of itscognitive emphasis which is strong which is a personality dimension. an individual can fall anywhere along that continuum be it internal or external though most individuals fall in the middle, as a result we can confidently say that: i. Many are circumstantial victims. ii. What happens to an individual is of his own making iii. What happens to a person is out of sheer luck. iv. The stupid thing ever is to imagine you can change ones basic attitude. v. When surely you are right then you have the power to convince others. Self-Efficacy This is a characteristic personality related to control locus but never too obvious. Believing in your own capability can make you achieve the desired results in a definitive task. When a positive feedback is received on achievements automatic rise from colleague observing to being the most successful and ambitious in what you do is guaranteed. When it’s greater an individual will posses and completes a task successfully and always working harder to meet challenges even if the circumstances are much hard. Self-Monitoring Showing a very consistent and common behavior across different situations and over a bigger period to a big extent is an important personality aspect. Some individuals’ posses same constant behaviors for different settings while others naturally change theirs in order to rhyme with the prevailing situation. Here individuals will regulate their behaviors based on some internal items like beliefs, own values and attitudes, same applies to external ones like situation requirements and reaction to others. Low self monitors since influenced by factors so internal hence show some good degree of consistent behavior as opposed to their counterparts of high self-monitors who depend on external influence hence change their behaviors to match prevailing situations and circumstances. Sensation Seeking The desire to test, explored actually feel intense and novel experiences mostly when reference is made as regards teenagers a tendency to be in involvement that leads to high-risk behavior is a potential. Drug experimentation, over speeding and undesirably unsafe sex is just but some of these risks. High sensation seekers are more likely to always get active involvement in adventurous deeds and thoughts and further excitements. High existence for dangerous behavior preference and high level of arousal likely has its tentative roots in various processes, since some of these high seekers have nerves that are at their best at high arousal levels. Proactive behaviors being source of annoyance Having people empowered may be rallying call for managers and chief executives. However, while employees who take first step to assist their fellow workmates to actually make a bigger difference, their proactive behavior is never ever rewarded or recognized by their bosses. For positivity of employees for example posses strong social values and are responsible get credit, weak pro-socialists are assumed to be advancing self interest by their bosses. When it comes to prioritization, bosses may not realize pro up activities so long as it’s not in line with the short term priorities no matter the long term benefits hence the lower personalities tend to give up as well as low self monitors and seekers. 3. The relation between giving and receiving as in relation to communication, conflict and negotiation in organizations can be outlined by looking at the two fields in detail. In giving and receiving feedback it can be amazing how when you are a listener talkers can cling on you like pins on the boat and picking them out is a mammoth task. When you are a good listener chances that you will be on the receiving end of your talkers problems and misgivings are4 so high if you have nothing in form of counsel or help to extend to them. Having said that nevertheless the rewards for harnessing this skill are so handsomely enormous for either the individual concerned or the ultimate employing organization. Never brush aside the fact that if you heed to other people’s needs ahead of yours may not be that counterintuitive but will rather ensure you both realize your aspirations in a more efficient way with no stress so do care to how best you do listening. Good feedback is something that has never and will never happen just like that. It’s a fine production of very careful, utmost strategic communication deliberations combined with good mature skills of interpersonal communication. In order to have an improved communication success probability one has to understand the role feedback plays in both communications be professional or personal. The value of admission and reception of feedback can be both positive and negative. For a corporate bent on improving itself this should not just be an employee’s behavior rather it should be culture. High level feedback skills help in achieving good meetings as well as powerful and productive employee interactions, effective customer and supplier communication and throughout your environment of work. Giving both negative and positive feedback at a go is very important, because individuals will only be interested in hearing your complains when you have given complements. Feedbacks without contexts are as useless. People need to know the whereabouts of the occurrence? Why the occurrence? What were the build up to its occurrence? Hence feedback can never have any positive impact without the chronology of events related to its occurrence. Provision of definitions is one of a kind that should never be taken for granted. Assumption that people have the knowledge of terms, phrases, and words you employ in our feedback is a recipe for disaster. The more meanings a phrase, word or term has the lesser the meaning it gives, hence in a feedback it’s mandatory for people to understand your feedback. Use of common language is key in feedback admission. A language that is less likely to be misinterpreted, misconstrued or misunderstood. Use of phrases, terms and words that are familiar to the audience. Other factors that are key include but not limited to items like, focusing on behaviors rather than the people, knowing when feedback is a requirement and most important of all is the knowledge on how to give feedback. Communication, conflict and negotiation in organizations all depends on good habits of good communication which include but not limited to: i. Clear speech. ii. Clear writings. iii. Cultural difference awareness. iv. Attentive listening. v. Precise questioning. vi. Honest answers vii. Pausing for feedback signals. In the process of communication with others we try to convince influence them to toe our line of behavior, understanding and attitudes, in the process of admitting the meaning. The aim of communicating is to motivate, inform and instruct or maybe seek information on some issues .Organizational communication done effectively has the fruits of achieving coordinated action, communicating duties and roles, expressing emotions and feelings and information development. The importance of managers and their employees being aware of the techniques important for the organizations communication structure cannot be stressed enough. The buck on communication never stops by the sender but rather the receiver who primarily may need to the attempt of decoding the information as in its interpretation to an understandable mode, in this instance the meaning may be twisted or lost or rather misinterpreted. The formal channels of communication do happen according to hierarchy authority in the specific organization. Since formal communications are official, authoritative, communication in form of writing like letters, policy statutes, memos and announcements follow this official channeling. the discussion as to the control of information flow and access puts emphasis into the fact that users have the ability to make available current employment and persona information leading to organizational fraud and attack by cyber criminals. The other argument which opposes this fact is that flow and ease of access of information emphasizes the fact that knowledge is a strong source of power hence its continuous channeling to employees give them the much needed power for the organizational development. Conflict Conflict is a global parameter which can make change, creativity and learning happen but for others it may make their days hell of less rejoice and enjoyment. Intensity and frequency of conflicts in the working environment brings the feeling of non-comfortability and reduces the effectiveness of the productive bodies. Hence the higher the conflict levels the ore likely higher exodus levels from the specific organization. Few do welcome conflict but it’s unfortunate many of the managers hardly know how to deal and tentatively manage them. While its successful exhaustion is the pillar of an effective organizational structure. Happenings such as internal disputes and infighting are a common scene in any organization. People mistakenly focus on resolving conflict among the lower cadre employees forgetting the one among the managers which is even more dangerous for any organizations health. Several types of communication can lead to severe conflicts, they include but not limited to blame-game communication, dishonest and selective communication, negative communication and superior communication. The pure levels of conflict majorly include, interpersonal which is either within a person or between two individuals, interorganisational and lastly intergroup. In a multicultural, multilingual society with so much diverse beliefs, practices and ideas conflicts arise due to uncertainty and frustration arising from cross-cultural adaptation poorly done. In managing work place conflict we can add some reinforcement responsibility of managers in this role, strategies for managing conflicts, support services and facilitating discussion sessions. Conflict resolution involves many styles such as hierarchical referrals to channels of command and having an organizational design that has isolation of departments to minimize conflicts. In conflict resolution, negotiation is key, it can be done distributively where focus in the hard-line positions of the parties involved or integrative negotiation where focus is on the merits of issues at hand. References. 1. Hampson, S.(1999). State of the art: Personality 2. Whiteman, M.C, Mathews.(2003).Personality traits (2nd ed.). Cambridge Universiry Press. 3. L, Stevens and R, Nicholas. Are You Listening? (1957) New York Publications. 4. C, Crossen. ‘The Crucial Question for These Noisy Times May Just Be’. Wall Street Journal, July 13, 1998 5. Floyd. A Practical Approach and Listening 6. Coakley, C.G and Wolvin, D.A .(1982)Listening 7. Read More