Factors Responsible for the Glass Ceiling Effect on Women in Top Managerial Positions - Research Paper Example

Factors Responsible for the Glass Ceiling Effect on Women in Top Managerial Positions in the UAEs Private Sector By: Course: Date: Contents Abstract 4 1.Introduction 5 1.1Background 5 1.2Objective and research question 5 1.3Significance of the research 6 2.Literature Review 6 2.1 Glass ceiling (Dfn) 6 2.2 Gender situation in UAE 6 2.3 Glass ceiling 7 3.Methodology 9 3.1 Research philosophy 9 3.2 Methodological choice 9 3.2.0 Use of Random sampling 11 3.2.1 Use of questionnaires 12 3.2.2 Methods in data analysis 12 3.2.3 Independent variable 13 3.2.4 Dependent variable 13 3.3 Hypotheses development 14 3.4 Ethical Concerns 14 References 15 4.References 18 5.Appendix 22 5.1 Questionnaire 22 Abstract The study centred on the problem of the effect of Glass Ceiling (GC) on the development of the career of women (CD). The researcher drew most of the theoretical framework from literature reviews and literature surveys. The research was done with the objective of identifying the factors responsible for the glass ceiling effect on women in top managerial positions in the UAE’s private sector. The paper designed hypotheses, a self-administered questionnaire, and used both descriptive and inferential statistics. At the end, the paper will provide a questionnaire. 1. Introduction 1.1 Background There is an increase concern in gender issues nowadays (Meyerson, 2000). There have been increased studies, seminars, and workshops that discuss the issues that affect women. The main reason here is that, the global labour markets have featured mostly the increase of participation of women. During the last two decades, studies indicate that there is increase in the proportion of women in management position (Bilimoria, 1994; Bombuwela, 2014; Caligiuri, 1999). This is because of activities of women’s movements, policies of politicians, and encouragement of equal opportunities in corporates. The paper will specifically look into the women in the UAE’s private sector. The research will focus on identifying the factors responsible for the glass ceiling effect on women in top managerial positions in UAE’s private sector. 1.2 Objective and research question The research objective is to identify the factors responsible for the glass ceiling effect on women in top managerial positions in UAE’s private sector. The paper will conduct a detailed analysis of the gender-specific occupational segregation in UAE. The paper will ask: (i) Are the glass effects barriers to women becoming leaders in the UAE’s business filed? (ii) What are the measures in place to encourage women to take up senior positions in their careers? 1.3 Significance of the research The study will help in understanding the gender gap in UAE’s private sector management positions. This study will assist in discussing the occupational gender segregation in UAE, and the effects of glass ceiling on women in leadership positions. The paper will help in the understanding of the artificial/invisible barriers that prevent women from advancing past a certain level. Governments and researches will find this study useful when looking for the most recent information on the situation of women in managerial positions in UAE (Fiedler, 2010). The paper is committed to championing gender equality that supports professional development. The conclusion will give recommendations on how to fight gender segregation. 2. Literature Review 2.1 Glass ceiling (Dfn) A study Morrison defined glass ceiling as ‘an unacknowledged discriminatory barrier that prevents women and minorities from rising to positions of power or responsibility, as within a corporation (Morrison, 1987, p. 58).’ Another study by Meyerson defined glass ceiling as ‘a situation in which progress, especially promotion appears to be possible but restrictions or discrimination create a barrier that prevents it (Meyerson, 2000, p. 14).’ 2.2 Gender situation in UAE Studies indicate that in UAE, the legal statuses of women are the one that influence their ability to exercise their rights. These studies further indicate that majority of female population consist of foreign professional women. These women reside in temporary employment contracts (Wirth, 2001; Busch, 2011; Auster, 1993). The UAE constitution stipulates equal treatment of all citizens (Afza, 2008). However, it does not specifically address gender-based discrimination. It just identifies women as wives and mothers. In other words, the UAE constitution focuses on reinforcing the traditional gender roles. It does not promote equality between men and women in UAE (Afza, 2008). A study by Bombuwela indicated that, there has been a recent legislation in UAE, which requires mandatory positions for females in UAE boardrooms. The legislation hopes to shatter the glass ceiling. However, this legislation was only meant to deal with women in the public sector (Bombuwela, 2014). 2.3 Glass ceiling Studies indicate that glass ceiling (GC) is used to examine inequalities between men and women in the workplace. This metaphor has been popularized by the media, government reports, and academic journals (Khaleeli, 2014; Auster, 1993; Afza, 2008; Mathur-Helm, 2006). Various literature reviews indicate that barriers that prevent women from ascending to power is called GC. They indicate that this barrier is transparent and it prevents women from moving up the corporate ladder (Eagly, 2002; Fassinger, 2008; Maginn, 2010). A specific study by Barnet-Verzat stated that women are capable of rising up the ranks, but they are halted by some factors (Barnet-Verzat, 2008). (Auster, 1993) points out that GC is visible to those whose careers have been affected by it. In UAE private sector, GC is necessarily not one ceiling, but rather many varied of gender bias that occur frequently in both overt and covert ways (Bilimoria, 1994). Researches in UAE state that most of their women felt that their male counterparts do not have responsibilities such as housework and childcare (Busch, 2011; Caligiuri, 1999). Therefore, they personally continue to have more responsibilities, which in the end increase their stress levels. A study by Booysen indicates that, the private sector is a very competitive field than the public sector, therefore, with many responsibilities, the women feel overworked (Booysen, 2010). The women argue that the family structure has a great impact on their career success. The study concludes that, majority of married men with families in UAE have greater career achievement than their wives who also work (Booysen, 2010). Another study by Morrison found out that married men have the greatest career pleasure because they have wives who look after their families (Morrison, 1994). The author argues that wives give additional resources for job performance. The wives not only take care of families, but they also offer spousal support and encouragements (Morrison, 1994). Some studies argue that GC is a myth and it is a self-created issue (Wirth, 2001; Barnet-Verzat, 2008). According to a study by Caligiuri, women received low wages and were not promoted to leadership positions because majority of them left jobs midway, worked for lesser jobs, and joined low-risk jobs (Caligiuri, 1999). The arguments of the authors of these studies are that, the women can hold managerial positions based on their competencies, hard work and competencies. 3. Methodology 3.1 Research philosophy The research is a qualitative one. It is generally associated with the social constructivist paradigm, which emphasizes the socially constructed nature of reality. The researcher has analyzed and attempted to uncover the deeper meaning of human behaviour and experience. The main objective of the paper is to gain a complex understanding of people’s experiences. The approach used in the paper is inductive. The paper did not base its study on pre-determined hypotheses. The paper clearly defined its problem and the researcher conducted a detailed analysis on the topic. All the data collected was in textual form. There were many steps involved in collecting the data. The researcher sometimes used some processes mid-way, in order to address additional issues. For instance, while interacting with the business owners, the researcher used the internet to clarify some issues raised. The paper used interpretive philosophy. It used this philosophy because the objective of the research concerned about the social world. The social world of management and business is too complex as to be formulated inn theories and laws. The research concluded many truths and meanings of sustainability. The philosophy helped produce result from the collected data. The researcher not only interacted with the environment, but he also seeks to make sense through the interpretation. 3.2 Methodological choice The focus for the research is to identify the factors responsible for the glass ceiling effect on women in top managerial positions in UAE’s private sector. The study entails many complex issues, which demands the researcher to do an extensive study. The task of doing the research has both utilitarian and cognitive characteristics. According to Bird (2009), the research would exploit the use of questionnaires most when collecting data. It is evident the scope of work is very large and requires the researcher to quickly adapt to various methodology. The adaptation would help the researcher cover individual tasks with ease. It would demand provision of wide range of research tools, for a better clarification of results. The researcher will use various methods, for example scientific methods. The technique is crucial in critically analyzing the various literatures. The literatures covered the issue of glass ceiling. There was involvement of action research to cover deeply the context of women participation in managerial activities. Furthermore, the researchers will rely on critical thinking to define the scope of the research. Logical deduction accompanied critical thinking. The research will have to explain the role of women on implementation of business strategies, and the significance of the women movements and groups. Information about the role came mainly from review of numerous literatures. In addition, the researcher will have to rely on the method of critical thinking to deduce further information. The research demanded for a practical dimension of government in bringing gender equality in their countries. In order to present the practical dimension, the paper relied on action research. Furthermore, logical deduction came in handy when defining the role of top women managers in implementing organizations strategy. Literature review was important because it would provide the source for critically appraisal of the connection between glass ceiling and women participation. It would help synthesis information on the importance of curtailing glass ceiling in any organization, encouraging women participation, improving their skills, and recommendations. Action research involved communication between the researchers and the participants. The researcher used his practical experiences in conducting the action research because of experience in conducting researches. The research wanted to prepare the best protocol in reliability case study. To ensure it was the best, the researcher prepared research questions. The answers for questions would help in answering the research question. A database stored all the interviews and documentations in the field. The rationale for conducting survey was to get a generalized view of the importance of curtailing glass ceiling. The researcher triangulated the findings from the survey against empirical data. The empirical data came from the interviews present in the database. It helped to identify the theoretical framework that described the importance of women participating in leadership. The researcher used the internet to further the study on the relationship between leadership and glass ceiling. Furthermore, the library was a very good source of crucial information. The information came from latest journals and book sections. The journals gave latest information on the current trends in glass ceiling. In addition, magazines were important tools in providing information. 3.2.0 Use of Random sampling This method involves collecting samples from the population, s every member has an equal chance for selection. Simple random sampling would not work for this case since one would need to have all members listed in the sample (Explorable, 2009). However, in this case, one would not have the list of all members available. Thus, it cannot be used. 3.2.1 Use of questionnaires The use of questionnaires would come in handy in conducting such a research. Since the respondent would have the same set of questions, one would be able to compare the data more comfortably as compared to interview or any other method. The researcher would have to design a proper set of questions to have the right data collected. Since this would be a survey, a questionnaire would be useful (Bird, 2009). When using questionnaires, most of the expenses that could be used to train and hire interviewers would be saved. One would control the mode of answering questions if the conditions are structured. In most cases, interviews yield data that is difficult to comprehend. 3.2.2 Methods in data analysis The method to be used to analyse the data collected would multiple regression analysis. Y=a + b1X1 + b2X2 + b3X3. Career development of women is the dependent variable(Y). The independent variables are Cultural, Individual, Organizational, Family factors. (X1, X2, X3, X4) From available theories, it is always noted that GC influences the career development of women (Bombuwela, 2014; Wirth, 2001). In this case, GC becomes the independent variable. Career development is the dependent variable. Now, this means career development of women depends on many variables. This paper will consider these factors: Cultural(C ), Individual(I), Organizational(O), Family(F). C factors include beliefs and stereotype, I factors include lack of confidence, personal traits, O factors include organizational policy and management style, F factors include childcare, housework. Taking career development of women as CD, the model for this study is: CD=f (GC) In this case, CD= f(C,F,O,I) Variables of the study 3.2.3 Independent variable The four dimensions are individual, family, organizational, and cultural factors. Family factors: Relations that affect performance of employee Individual factors: They are individual barriers that affect performance of employees Organizational factors: The role of organizations in influencing the performance of employees. Cultural factors: How beliefs, traditions affect performance of individuals. 3.2.4 Dependent variable Career development of women is the dependent variable. Citing the study from the three components of measuring career development of women is career focused (cf), attitudes towards organizations (ao), and family support (fs). 3.3 Hypotheses development From studies, GC barriers can be divided into societal, individual, and organizational barriers. Statistics in UAE indicate that almost 80% of women do childcare and elderly care work. A specific study by Wirth identified five factors, which influence GC effects in the private sector organizations (Wirth, 2001). They include: Management perception Work environment Sexual harassment Work-life conflict Organizational policy The above findings were useful in developing the hypotheses. H1: There is effect of Individual factors H2: There is effect of Family Factors H3: There is effect of Organizational Factors H4: There is effect of Cultural Factors 3.4 Ethical Concerns There were ethical matters around the participants. These are involvement of young people under 18 years, some participants were colleagues in class, and many participants did not understand English. In matters around the researchers, there is a conflict of interest for the researcher. When recruiting participants, deception is involved. There was presence of physical and mental risk, discomfort to the participant and researcher, and risk to personal safety. References Afza, S. (2008). Factors determining the presence of GC and influencing women career advancement in bangladesh. Bbrac University Journal , 5 (1), 85-92. Auster, E. (1993). Demystifying the GC: Organizational and interpersonal dynamics of Journal of Competitiveness. Business and the Contemporary World , 5, 47-68. Barnet-Verzat, C. (2008). Gender wage gap and the glass ceiling effect a firm level investigation. International Journal of Manpower , 29 (6), 486-502. Bilimoria, D. (1994). Board committee membership: Effects of sex-based bias. Academy of Management Journal , 37 (6), 1453-1477. Bird, D. K. (2009, July 31). The use of questionnaires for acquiring information on public. Retrieved December 16, 2014, from Natural Hazards: http://www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net/9/1307/2009/nhess-9-1307-2009.pdf Blank, R. M. (1996). Report of the committee on the status of women in the economics profession. American Economic Review , 86 (2), 502-506. Bombuwela, P. (2014). Effects of Glass Ceiling on Women Career Development in Private Sector Organizations. Case of Sri Lanka , 1-17. Booysen, L. (2010). Gender role stereotypes and requisite management characteristics: The case of South Africa. Gender in Management: An International Journal , 25 (4), 285-300. Busch, A. (2011). Gender-Specific Occupational Segregation, Glass Ceiling Effects, and Earnings in Managerial Positions: Results of a Fixed Effects Model. Institute for the Study of Labor , 1-27. Caligiuri, P. M. (1999). Comparing the success of male and female expatriates from a us-based company. International Journal of Human Resource Management , 10 (5), 163-179. Dreher, G. F. (1990). A comparative study of mentoring among men and women in managerial, professional and technical positions. Journal of Applied Psycholog y , 75 (5), 539-546. Eagly, A. (2002). Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psychological Review , 109 (3), 573-59. Fassinger, R. (2008). Workplace diversity and public policy: challenges and opportunities for psychology. American Psychologist (4). Fiedler, M. E. (2010). Breaking Through the Stained Glass Ceiling: Women Religious Leaders in Their Own Words. Church Publishing, Inc. Hanley, N. (2000). Macroeconomic measures of „sustainability. Journal of Economic Surveys , 1-30. Henderson, D. (2005). The Role of Business in the World Today. Journal of Corporate Citizenship , 30-32. Jacobson, J. L. (1993). Gender Bias: Roadlock to Sustainable Development. Focus , 46-52. Khaleeli, H. (2014). Five more glass ceilings for women to smash. The Guardian , 1-3. Kramer, M. R. (2006). The Link between Competitive Advantage and Corporate Social Responsibility. Harvard Business review , 78-92. Leiserowitz, A. A. (2005). What is Sustuinable Development? Goals, Indicators, Values and Practice. Environment . Maginn, P. (2010). Breaking through the glass ceiling of local government? The gender profile of Australian mayors in metropolitan Australia 1985-2010. Perth: The University of Western Australia and Committee for Perth. Mathur-Helm, B. (2006). Women and the glass ceiling in South African banks: an illusion or reality? Women in Management Review , 21 (4), 311-326. Meyerson, D. E. (2000). A Modest Manifesto for Shattering the Glass Ceiling. ADVANCE Library Collection, Paper 190 . Morrison, A. M. (1987). Breaking the GC: Can women reach the top of America’s largest corporations? Morrison, A. M. (1994). Breaking The Glass Ceiling: Can Women Reach The Top Of Americas Largest Corporations? Updated Edition. Basic Books. Sadowski, M. (2014). What is the value of corporate sustainability ratings? . The guardian . Wikstrom, P. (2010). Sustainability and Organizational Activities. Three Approaches.Sustainable development , 99-107. Williams, J. (2011). Research Paradigm and Philosophy. Wirth, L. (2001). Breaking through the glass ceiling . Women in management , 2-201. . 4. References Afza, S. (2008). Factors determining the presence of GC and influencing women career advancement in bangladesh. Bbrac University Journal, 5(1), 85-92. Auster, E. (1993). Demystifying the GC: Organizational and interpersonal dynamics of Journal of Competitiveness. Business and the Contemporary World, 5, 47-68. Barnet-Verzat, C. (2008). Gender wage gap and the glass ceiling effect a firm level investigation. International Journal of Manpower, 29(6), 486-502. Bilimoria, D. (1994). Board committee membership: Effects of sex-based bias. Academy of Management Journal, 37(6), 1453-1477. Blank, R. M. (1996). Report of the committee on the status of women in the economics profession. American Economic Review, 86(2), 502-506. Bombuwela, P. (2014). Effects of Glass Ceiling on Women Career Development in Private Sector Organizations. Case of Sri Lanka, 1-17. Booysen, L. (2010). Gender role stereotypes and requisite management characteristics: The case of South Africa. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 25(4), 285-300. Busch, A. (2011). Gender-Specific Occupational Segregation, Glass Ceiling Effects, and Earnings in Managerial Positions: Results of a Fixed Effects Model. Institute for the Study of Labor, 1-27. Caligiuri, P. M. (1999). Comparing the success of male and female expatriates from a us-based company. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 10(5), 163-179. Dreher, G. F. (1990). A comparative study of mentoring among men and women in managerial, professional and technical positions. Journal of Applied Psycholog y, 75(5), 539-546. Eagly, A. (2002). Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psychological Review, 109(3), 573-59. Explorable.com (Jul 13, 2009). Random Sampling. Retrieved Dec 15, 2014 from Explorable.com: https://explorable.com/simple-random-sampling Fassinger, R. (2008). Workplace diversity and public policy: challenges and opportunities for psychology. American Psychologist(4). Fiedler, M. E. (2010). Breaking Through the Stained Glass Ceiling: Women Religious Leaders in Their Own Words. Church Publishing, Inc. Khaleeli, H. (2014). Five more glass ceilings for women to smash. The Guardian, 1-3. Maginn, P. (2010). Breaking through the glass ceiling of local government? The gender profile of Australian mayors in metropolitan Australia 1985-2010. Perth: The University of Western Australia and Committee for Perth. Mathur-Helm, B. (2006). Women and the glass ceiling in South African banks: an illusion or reality? Women in Management Review, 21(4), 311-326. Meyerson, D. E. (2000). A Modest Manifesto for Shattering the Glass Ceiling. ADVANCE Library Collection, Paper 190. Morrison, A. M. (1987). Breaking the GC: Can women reach the top of America’s largest corporations? Morrison, A. M. (1994). Breaking The Glass Ceiling: Can Women Reach The Top Of Americas Largest Corporations? Updated Edition. Basic Books. Wirth, L. (2001). Breaking through the glass ceiling . Women in management, 2-201. 5. Appendix 5.1 Questionnaire Survey: The Glass Ceiling The purpose of this survey is to identify the factors responsible for the glass ceiling effect on women in top managerial positions in UAE’s private sector. “Glass ceiling” is used to describe artificial barriers that prevent qualified women from advancing within their organization. The questionnaire will follow the principles of confidentiality strictly, and ensure no publication of private information. 1. Gender A. Male B. Female 2. Age Below 20 years old_______ 20-29 years old___________ 30-39 years old_______________ 40-49 years old-__________ Above 50 years old_________ 3. Employment status_____ 4. Education level_________ 5. City/Region of residence_________ The factors here are: Cultural, Individual, Organizational, Family factors Please use the following scale to answer question below: 1. Strongly Disagree 2. Disagree 3. Neutral 4. Agree 5. Strongly Agree 1. _____ Women and men are equally respected in the workplace. 2. _____ People should be rewarded based on their performance, regardless of whether they are men or women. 3. _____ Women and men can perform the same work equally well. 4. _____ An employee who devotes extra time to the job each week, beyond 40 hours, is more committed, more career-oriented, and generally a better employee than one who devotes only 40 hours per week. 5. _____ An employee who has relocated geographically for job-related reasons is a better candidate for promotion than one who has not. 6. _____ A woman must perform better than a man to be promoted. 7. _____ Standards are higher for women than men. 8. _____ The viewpoint of a woman is often not heard at a meeting until it is repeated by a man. 9. _____ Women are placed in positions beyond their level of competence because of affirmative action employment programs. 10. _____ In my opinion, in the workplace, women are likely to face the barriers of a glass ceiling. 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