Black Nationalism - Research Paper Example

Lectuter: Black Nationalism Black Nationalism according to Schlup “represents manifestation of racial solidarity by the blacks,shaped and driven by desire to achieve meaningful freedom, equality and justice” (43). It is founded on the concepts of racial pride and solidarity and was mostly a reaction of the Jim Crow laws that legalized segregation and discrimination in the United States especially the South. African-African rights were abridged by the various constitutions passed in the 1890s and most of them became disenfranchised thus provoking nationalist reactions. Slogans such as “race first, then party” were common for black nationalists. They also used the strategies of race consciousness and identity to woo blacks to their cause. Black nationalists such as Martin Delany, Henry McNeal Turner, Marcus Garvey, and Malcolm X advocated emigration to Africa while some preferred internal statism whereby an dependent black settlement within the nation such as Oklahoma, Ohio and Kansas would be established. Some Blacks such as Frederick Douglass, Martin Luther King, Jr and W.E.B.Du Bois favored integration which involved cooperation with the whites. The movement was apparent on the eve of American Civil War with individuals such as Martin Delany and Alexander Crummell advocating for emigration to Upper Canada, Haiti, Mexico and some parts of West coast of Africa but it was the First World War (Great War) and Vietnam War that strengthened the cause (Roger 31). The blacks support for the Allied forces in the war helped to raise race consciousness and demystify the myth of white superiority. This essay will compare and contrast black nationalism during and after the Great war (1914-1919) and also the Cold War (1947-1991) highlighting the key figures, interest groups and their strategies and goals. Background Black Nationalism aims at advocating racial definition (or redefinition) of national identity. According to Moses, it originated in the nineteenth century with Martin Delany (1812-1885), Edward Wilmot Blyden, Henry Highland Garnet, Paul Cuffe, and Marcus Mosiah Garvey. Delany is regarded as the father of Black Nationalism as he was the earliest to advocate for emigration to Canada and viewed African-Americans as “a nation within a nation” (Moses 1996, 101). This was after the compromise of 1850 that resulted in the Fugitive Slave Act. This Act rendered almost all freed slaves suspects hence it mandated courts to try any black person, slave or free without a jury and to pay commissioners double fee if they declared a suspect fugitive. As such, even though the slaves had been emancipated, they were worse off than slaves who had owners who could lay claim to them. He therefore arranged a National Emigration Convention in 1854 in Cleveland to discuss “The Political Destiny of Colored Race on the American Continents” thus calling for a black nation-state (112). He gave examples of Puritans who had emigrated from Europe to New World in 1860s and now formed the U.S and also the Liberians and Poles in Russia but he warned against leaving America as he believed it was their destiny and home designed by providence. This emigration was to be funded by England and France. Holly James Ton the other hand, believed in the doctrine of manifest destiny hence preferred emigration westwards to Haiti (131). Black Nationalism in the eve of Civil War thus involved debates about support or rejection of territorial separatism in the form of colonization and emigration movements (Moses 1988, 32). Blacks like Paul Cuffe had already began settling some blacks or freedmen to Sierra Leone by 1817. The American Colonization Society comprising blacks and whites was advocating for relocation to Africa and especially Liberia and Sierra Leone in the 1830s and 1840s. The Negro National Convention movement on the other hand, was against colonization advocated by the colonization society and advocated for emigration to Canada, Haiti, Mexico and Niger Valley though on voluntary basis. Delany and Garnet were against emigration to Liberia as they believed it was not an independent republic as it depended on American colonizationsists (35). Garnet was the leader of African Civilization Society which advocated for civilization and Christianization of Africa through Protestantism. For him, sending blacks back to Africa was not an option although he came to accept the idea in 1849 when he suggested he was ready to for colonization in nay part of U.S, West Indies, or Africa only if it promised freedom and enfranchisement. By 1860, both Delany and Garnet had come to accept the ideas and help of American colonizationists. Alexander Crummell (1819-1898) and Henry Turner (1834-1915) also were among the classical black nationalists advocating for emigration. They believed Blacks would never be accepted in America hence the ultimate salvation to resist and overcome European domination was emigration (Schlup 43). Those advocating emigration though there were enough resources in African soil to further the race based on their talents. However, these black nationalists like Crummell, Blyden and Robert Campbell also felt that European colonization had done a lot of good for the Africans by civilizing them hence often shifted positions from emigration to colonization to integration as advocated by Frederick Douglass and Booker T Washington. These two thought cooperation and reconciliation was the best in achieving African-American ends; that is, black rights and advancement of the race. As such, during this period, there was no clear-cut distinction between Black Nationalism and assimilation as all were advocating almost the same things: civilization for Africans (Moses 45). The diction between colonization and emigration was also not clear as the advocates of emigration were not ready to relocate themselves or leave American and European values aside. The Black Nationalist appeals were set aside during the Civil War as all blacks embarked on helping the Union keep the federation intact against the confederacy. The Great War The Great War marked the beginning of strengthened black nationalism most of all because it was a black man’s war—a war fought over African policy. In this war, according to Moses, “black soldiers were fighting to protect the civilization of Europe from itself” (220). They were rallying behind the Allied forces which included Britain, America and France against the Germans and Italians hence were fighting for their colonial oppressors. The war according to President Woodrow Wilson was a war for democracy to enable freedom self-determination of states. As such, it was appealing to blacks as they thought they would also achieve democracy at home and finally end the Jim Crow era of discrimination. The Russo-Japanese war of 1904-05 which ended in victory for Japan had raised black internationalism in the African- American community as it demystified the myth of white superiority (Roger 32). If Japan (regarded as people of color by Americans) could defeat Russians who are whites, then there was a possibility for people of color to redeem their race from white domination. Activists like Du Bois and Garvey began to view Japan as the liberator of colored people especially as it started acting as the advocate of discriminated people at international level thus promoting their rights. It was thus entrusted with ensuring an equality clause was placed in the League of Nations charter formulated at the end of the war although it did not materialize. Working alongside Allied forces, African-Americans saw the weaknesses of the whites and began to realize that they were just human like them and could also be defeated. The British Armed forces recruited 1.2 million Indian troops, France 175,000 Africans and U.S military 367,000 blacks (Roger 31-33). To mobilize blacks and people of color to war, Woodrow Wilson and his administration had used propaganda that reflected Germans as cruel people hence the war was supposed to redeem such people or countries from tyranny hence self-determination and rights of free people everywhere. It was a war to spread democracy in the entire world. This was the justification given for abandoning the neutral or isolationist policy and engaging in the war. The blacks were thus expecting social changes at home once the war was over but this was not to be as denial of rights through the Jim Crow laws continued. This led to dissatisfaction among the blacks thus heightening Black Nationalism. Marcus Garvey (1887-1940) through the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) founded in the 1910s under the influence of Booker T Washington, McNeal Turner and Martin Delany began advocating for repatriation to Africa in the 1920s. Booker T. Washington in the Atlanta Exposition Address in 1895 had argued that since the Negro race comprised one-third of the population, it deserved recognition and enjoyment of full rights as whites and that the two races should work together for peace and prosperity (p.41). Turner in the “The American Negro and his Fatherland” in 1895 advocated for emigration to Africa to be funded by the government as an appreciation of their hard work. For him, only black laws, values, culture and language would allow them achieve racial pride as discrimination was inherent in American institutions (Edwin 167-171). Garvey thus believed all African people could unite to advance their course since they are one people and also believed in equality of human beings. His call was for the liberation of all African Diaspora hence he embarked on “back to Africa’ campaign where blacks could be free (Garvey 120). His ideology of self-sufficiency and racial solidarity augured well with African Americans who followed him in masses through his annual conventions. By 1921 he had a following of more than six million people throughout the world (Thomas 48). He also advocated self-help like Washington hence the establishment of Black Star Line shipping manned by the blacks. He thought it was time blacks thought of “race first” then fighting for others would come later after unity of blacks had been achieved. His campaigns involved use of the red, black and green banners symbolizing Africans and their struggle and singing of nationalist hymns. Most countries today in Africa still use these colors in their flags (Thomas 55). The goal of these conferences or campaigns according to Thomas was “to create Negro-race consciousness, advocate self-determination, and instill racial self-help as well as racial love and respect” (48). Though Garvey was radical and military in his tactics, he was criticized by black intelligentsia such as Du Bois and A Philip Randolph for misleading black masses. His movement began to decline in 1927 when he was deported to Jamaica and his death in London in 1940. However, he was an inspiration to other black nationalists such as Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam. Other vocal black nationalists were Cyril Briggs the editor of Negro journal The Crusader and Claude McKay editor of radical journal The Liberator (Stephens 592-608). They regarded Woodrow Wilson’s war rhetoric as a mask of U.S imperialism especially since people of color were not included in the League of Nations charter that was to define nation-states. The league only included members of Free states. Briggs thus formed the African Blood Brotherhood (ABB) in 1921 with the aim of forming a federation government to represent all Negro organizations and based on the communist society ideals. Though McKay supported it, Garvey was against communism hence did not offer his support through UNIA. McKay was more inclined to formation of a worker’s party that would carry out a revolution just like the Comintern (Stephens 603). However, blacks in America were not strong enough to wage a revolution hence McKay began advocating for a transnational community. Besides WWI, the Haitian successful resistance against American occupation was an inspiration to these nationalists. According to Thompson, Haitian war of independence was “a sign of race pride and possible black revolutionary change” (15). Other black nationalists prominent after WWII and during the Cold War of 1947-1991 were Malcolm X, Elijah Muhammad and Stokely Carmichael. This was also a period of heightened civil rights movement led by Martin Luther King, Jr advocating for integration. Blacks during this era of Vietnam War and reign of Lyndon Johnson were against the U.S policy of intervention to end communism abroad in the name of spreading democracy. After the two world wars, blacks were conscious of dying to save others while their plight had not been dealt with at home. Malcom X in the 1950s and early 60s was the voice of Nation of Islam which was formed in 1930 due to inspiration from Garvey. Its leader was a militant black separatist named Elijah Muhammad. It emphasized economic independence, black pride and masculinity (Digital history, n.d). The organization under Malcolm X used military tactics to achieve its ends and was against integration. Malcolm argued that the Africans, Arabs, Asians and Latin Americans had a common enemy which is the “international power structure” and that no black-white unity could be there until there is first some black unity (Stephens 592-608; Taylor 265-312). He left the organization in 1964 for a pilgrimage to Mecca where his views drastically changed to embrace integration and nonviolence. However, he was assassinated in 1965. In 1966, two civil rights movements Student Nonviolent Cordinating Committee (SNCC) and Congress for Racial Equality (CORE) joined black nationalism. Carmichael of SNCC formed an all-black organization called the Black Power party which advocated for political and economic power as well as own separate political organizations (Digitalhistory, n.p). His ideas was to split the U.S into separate countries for blacks and whites. CORE joined black power later.The Black Panther party for Self-Defense (Black Panthers) was formed in October 1966 and popularized racial separation and black power. It threatened the whites and demanded fair employment opportunities, exemption from military service in Vietnam and education. It believed all black men must unite to overthrow white oppression even with arms and that racial pride and self-respect was crucial before any meaningful gains could be achieved. However, it was dissolved in 1969 by the federal government since it was viewed as a threat. Conclusion Black Nationalism was a movement advocating racial definition of national identity and aimed at achieving racial pride and solidarity. Its principles included unity and self-determination hence advocated for separation or independence from European society. It originated in the nineteenth century with Garvey, Turner, Blyden, Garnet, Cuffe and Delany. Martin Delany is regarded as the father of Black Nationalism as he began advocating emigration as early as 1854 and regarded African Americans as “a nation within a nation.” Other twentieth century black nationalists included Crummell, Malcolm X, Elijah Muhammad and Carmichael. Movements such as the African colonization society, American colonization society, UNIA, Nation of Islam, Black Power and Black Panthers were vital in advocating for self-determination, racial solidarity and pride and repatriation to Africa of the Canada, Haiti, and other areas. The periods between WWI and WWII and during Cold War involved heightened Black Nationalism due to failure of the U.S presidents in ensuring democracy at home as it was purporting to enhance democracy abroad. Race consciousness came about by realization that even the whites could be defeated hence breaking the myth of white supremacy. Moreover the League of Nations failed to fulfil the aspirations of the blacks of freedom and self-determination. Works Cited Booker T. Washington . Atlanta Exposition Address in 1895 Digital History. Black Nationalism and Black Power. Web. December 19, 2014. http://www.digitalhistory-uh.edu/disp-textbook.cfm?smtid=2&psid=3331 Edwin S. Redkey, ed., Respect Black: The Writings and Speeches of Henry McNeal Turner (New York: Arno Press, 1971), pp 167-171. Reprinted by permission. Garvey, Marcus. Philosophy and Opinions of Marcus Garvey, Or: Africa for the Africans. A.M Kelly, 1967. Moses Wilson Jeremiah. The Golden Age of Balck Nationalism, 1850-1925. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. Moses Wilson Jeremiah. (eds). Classical Black Nationalism: from the American Revolution to Marcus Garvey. New York: New York University Press, 1996. Roger Chapman. Review of Gallicchio Marc. The African American Encounter with Japan and China: Black Internationalism in Asia, 1895-1945. Chapel Hill & London: University of California Press, 2002. Schlup, Leonard C and Ryan James G. Historical Dictionary of the Gilded Age. Armonk, NY: M.E Sharpe, 2003. Stephens, Michelle A. Black Transnationalism and the Politics of National Identity: West Indian Intellectuals in Harlem in the Age of War and Revolution. American Quarterly, 50.3(1998) 592-608. Taylor, James L. Black Nationalism in the United States: From Malcolm X to Barack Obama. Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 2011. Thomas, Darryl C. The Theory and Practice of Third World Solidarity. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing, 2001. Thompson, Mark C. Black Fascism: African American Literature and Culture between the Wars. University of Virginia Press, 2007. Read More