What were Bismarcks Motives for both Starting and Ending the Kulturkampf - Report Example

WHAT WERE BISMARCK’S MOTIVES FOR BOTH STARTING AND ENDING THE KULTURKAMPF? due: The German term Kulturkampf, (literally, ‘culture struggle’) is used to describe the German policies that were put in action by the Prime Minister of Prussia, Otto Von Bismarck, between 1871 and 1878. They were formed in relation to secularity and liberalism with the aim of reducing the power and influence of the Roman Catholic Church in Prussia. The Kulturkampf was one way in which the new German Empire sought to unite its citizens to form one unitary nation, as opposed to the previous situation where it consisted of several independent states. The main advocator for a unified German Empire was Otto von Bismarck, who was appointed Chancellor under the rule of Kaiser William I (1871 – 1888). He was very influential in the Empire and controlled the government of the Reich1. Bismarck accelerated and ended the Kulturkampf, for reasons that have remained complex and not easily understood. Basically, the reasons were personal, political and external. The Kulturkampf came at a time when the ambitious Chancellor was provided with a chance of transforming Germany to be the most powerful Empire in Europe and the world. Although his initial motive was to create a unified Empire, his manner of doing so presented several radical measures that eventually attracted much negative attention from the international community. Bismarck’s attack on the Catholic Church included enactment of a series of laws discriminating against Catholics. The new legislation made them feel persecuted especially because they were in a predominantly Protestant nation (approximately 62% of the population was Protestant). By reducing the influence of the Catholic Church and attempting to eliminate the Polish nationality, Bismarck sought to appeal to the Protestants and liberal political parties2. Priests and bishops who tried to oppose the Kulturkampf were either imprisoned or removed from their clerical positions. At the height of the Kulturkampf, almost half of the Prussian bishops were imprisoned or exiled, monks and nuns had left Prussia and parishes were left with no priests. Thousands of other people who attempted to assist them were also imprisoned. Contrary to Bismarck’s expectations, the Catholic Church was not cowed and instead became energized to form, a political force in the Centre Party, which represented the Poles and other Catholics within the nation. The Kulturkampf backfired and ended in 1880, shortly before Bismarck was removed from power. However, certain laws that had been implemented during its time (such as those relating to civil marriage and state schools) remained functional. Although differing on the exact motivations behind the Kulturkampf, most scholars agree that it only succeeded in the deepening of divisions within the Empire, contrary to Bismarck’s initial claims3. Reasons for starting the Kulturkampf 1. The philosophy of liberalism was gaining popularity in the largest party in the Reich, the National Liberals Bismarck was strongly affiliated to the National Liberals political Party and his motive of alienating the Catholic Church and Poles was primarily aimed at gaining support of the Protestants who formed the majority of the population. The National Liberals’ philosophy opposed all institutions that imposed restrictions on the freedom of the German citizen. This opposition was mainly directed towards the Roman Catholic Church, which strongly opposed liberalism all over Europe. The National Liberals viewed Rome, and consequently the Catholic Church, as their natural enemy. The doctrine of Papal Infallibility also became famous around the same time, and this raised many questions among the Protestants regarding the actual loyalty of the Catholics. There were doubts of whether it was to the Empire or Rome4. Loyalty was of direct importance to Bismarck since he was aiming at unification of the Empire and therefore needed to be sure of where the loyalties of his citizens lay. However, he was not as democratic as to allow the people several choices. He instead opted to eliminate the Catholic Church, which he viewed as competition for the loyalty of the people and influence in power. However, being a supporter of liberalism too, it can be assumed that Bismarck accelerated the Kulturkampf in an attempt to promote freedom of the ‘loyal’ German citizens. 2. The state wanted to have control over the Catholic Church The Catholic Church had gained so much political influence and authority of certain state-controlled areas. For instance, it was observed that the Church was influential in the education sector where religious schools and teachers were present5. The Church’s influence was also infiltrating into the government schools. Introduction of the May Laws further reinforced the state’s control of the Catholic Church in Prussia. Control of education was the main battleground between the Empire and the Church. The May Laws ensured that not only was the state responsible for education of the public, but also the clergy were required to have attended a German University for three years before enrolling in a seminary. Civil marriage was also introduced at this time. The authority of the Papacy in Germany was further undermined since the disciplinary authority (such as appointment of bishops) was handed over to state agencies. Domination of the Church by the Empire was Bismarck’s idea of ensuring that there was only one ruling authority in the nation, and that was supposed to be the government. Bismarck feared that the Catholic Church, representing Rome, would gain more influence on the people than the administration, and this was not in line with his vision of a unified nation. Domination by the state would also facilitate the eradication of the minority groups which the Catholic Church supported. 3. Eradication of the Polish nationality As a Prussian, Bismarck disliked the minority group comprising of the Poles6. He was even more annoyed by the fact that the Catholic Church seemed to support them and even use the Polish language in areas that were predominantly occupied by the Poles. He even admits on several occasions that the reason for engaging in battle against the Catholic Church is primarily because of the ‘Polish question’7. The Church played a vital role in ensuring that the Polish nationality remained distinct from the other Prussians that inhabited the Eastern part of Prussia. Reducing the authority of the Church in performing certain functions of the state such as education, along with ability to control appointment of clerics would weaken the Catholic Church and consequently, the Polish nationalism. Existence of the distinct Polish nationality also presented particular vulnerabilities in the newly formed Empire, and this might have been another reason for Bismarck to accelerate the Kulturkampf8. Their distinct nationality was contrary to a unified nation that was envisioned by the government. Given Bismarck’s fear of war at the time, this was not only a domestic matter of concern for Prussia or Germany, but can also be understood as a component of broad-based security strategy.9 4. Battle of Catholicism as an organized political force in Germany Another reason for Bismarck’s engagement in the Kulturkampf was the fight against the Catholic Church as a political force within the nation. The Centre Party had gained much popularity among the Prussian Landtag and Reichstag in 1871. What made this particularly important for Bismarck was the fact that the leader of the party was his parliamentary nemesis, Ludwig Windthorst, who was still a staunch supporter of his former ruler. Therefore, Ludwig and the masses behind him did not approve the new German Empire entirely and posted some form of threat to its unity and success. Since there was still doubt regarding the loyalty of the non-Prussian member states of the new entity, the presence of a political party that encouraged contrary philosophies threatened the inner consolidation of the Reich. A strong Centre Party in the Reich also meant that the Pope had a particular influence over the internal affairs of Germany, a vulnerability that could be exploited by adversaries10. By initiating the Kulturkampf, Bismarck was removing security weaknesses posed by the Catholic Church and also ensuring that unification was maintained, especially within the Reich. 5. The wave of change that was happening in Europe Even though the causes of Kulturkampf can be viewed from an international perspective, it was more domestic in nature. A wider European context shows that most countries with a population of Catholics were undergoing the same internal turmoil at the last quarter of the nineteenth century11. All these countries had conflicts with the Catholic Church including other features similar to the Prussian experience. For instance, opposition to the dominance of the government by the Papacy and requirement that the citizens be loyal to the government was among the shared characteristics of the revolution. There was the predominance of a new secular ideology. The new philosophy advocated for nationalism, the drive for the state to establish sole control over institutions, loyalty of the citizens and other liberal, progressive philosophies. In regard to reasoning, the causes of culture struggle in Prussian Germany cease to be tied to one individual and are seen as a wave of political change. Bismarck was just swept along by the currents of his time. Therefore, in light of this assumption, it seems difficult to find the exact reason(s) that led Bismarck to accelerate the Kulturkampf. 6. Personal ambition to unify the nation and gain exclusive loyalty of citizens Bismarck was a liberalist and believed that the country was supposed to be unified under one ruler, to whom all citizens pledged allegiance12. The assurance of loyalty of the citizens was the sole purpose why he feared the influence of the Catholic Church in the country. The Catholic Church also supported the Poles in Prussia, whom Bismarck was trying so hard to eliminate. The Poles were clearly in support of the Catholic Church, which Bismarck saw as a representative of Rome. Furthermore, the fact that Catholics regarded the Pope as being of higher authority than the Kaiser was also not favourable and in Bismarck’s eyes, such people were enemies. All these factors only provided a platform on which Bismarck could initiate the Kulturkampf. So strong was Bismarck’s intention of unifying the nation that he later opted to change party alliances based on their beliefs. He left the National Liberals and formed ties with the Centre Party, with the aim of maintaining national unity through techniques such as protectionism and opposition to socialism. Reasons for ending the Kulturkampf 1. The political success of the Centre Party The Centre Party, contrary to Bismarck’s expectations, had become more familiar with the citizens and had a larger representation in the Reich13. Continuing with the Kulturkampf would only increase the popularity of the Central Party since all those who were imprisoned or exiled were regarded as martyrs, and this spurred more resistance from the Catholics. Further atrocities directed at the Catholics were also unwanted, both by the National Liberals and the Protestants because the Kulturkampf had attracted so much international attention. It was only natural for Bismarck to end the Kulturkampf since continuation contributed towards increasing the popularity of the Centre Party, under the firm leadership of his parliamentary rival Ludwig Windthorst. 2. Rise of socialism Due to the vast industrialization initiated by Bismarck, there arose a large working class. Some politicians began to advocate for socialism and formed a political party (Social Democratic Party), which had 12 seats in the Reichstag. Just like the Catholics, socialists had allegiances outside the nation that Bismarck could neither understand nor tolerate14 and therefore he considered them enemies of political and social unity. The Catholic Church did not support the idea of socialism since they believed that every man had the right to own property, with which he would provide for his family. Opposition to socialism provided common ground between the Centre Party and Bismarck’s ambitions. Since Bismarck now needed the support of the Centre Party to introduce laws against the socialists, he had to end the Kulturkampf first. Two attempts to end the life of the Kaiser later occurred15, and Bismarck used this opportunity to introduce the anti-socialist laws. The laws deprived them of rights to assemble and make any publications among other harsh measures by the government. 3. National Liberals supported free trade while Bismarck preferred protectionism The National Liberals were beginning to become more troublesome for Bismarck due to their support of free trade among nations16. Promotion of free trade among countries was contrary to Bismarck’s idea of national unity since foreign trade would increase competition for local industries and dilute the market. Protectionism was necessary for Bismarck as a tool for maintaining national unity, and since his party was not for the idea, he had to look for support in the Centre party. To gain their support, the Kulturkampf would have to come to an end, and the laws against Catholicism (Falk Laws) be lifted. Protectionism and socialism became more important for Bismarck than party alliance with the National Liberals, and this made him end the Kulturkampf. 4. Negotiation with Pope Leo XIII After the death of Pope Pius IX in 1878 and the subsequent election of Leo XIII, new ways of compromise were created. Leo wrote to the Kaiser requesting for friendlier relations with Germany17. This came at a time when Bismarck was beginning to lose hope in his National Liberal allies and the Catholic Church, through the Centre Party shared most of his ideologies. Negotiations with the new Pope led to the removal of most of the anti-Catholic laws (which were blamed on Falk) although civil marriage and control over state schools remained valid. However, the consequences of the Kulturkampf remained visible through the clear hatred created by the Prussian Poles and the Germans. The Catholics were also left with a distrust of the state that lasted for several years afterwards. In conclusion, the reasons for both starting and ending the Kulturkampf can be placed into three broad perspectives: personal, political and external. From a personal viewpoint, it can be assumed that Bismarck, being a Prussian, hated the Poles living in Prussia at the time. When given the right opportunity, he had every reason to eradicate them from the Empire. Bismarck was also a liberalist and treated all other contrary opinions as resistance that required to be dealt with forcefully. His personal stance remained apparent even after the failure of Kulturkampf when he forms alliances with the same party that he strongly opposed in an effort to maintain national unity. From a political point of view, the Kulturkampf can be attributed to the security and policy loopholes that Bismarck identified in the Catholics and Poles. Unification, according to Bismarck, would only be achieved if all citizens and political parties were loyal to the Kaiser alone. Ending the Kulturkampf can also be attributed to the same reason – political protection of the citizens from socialism and external influence by foreign industrialists. External forces, including the political shift to liberalism and nationalism also contributed to starting of the Kulturkampf and also contributed to its ending since it was influenced by the international community to a large extent. Overall, the Kulturkampf is one of Bismarck’s largest failures as a political leader although his achievements of national unification and industrialization are indisputable. Bibliography Anderson, M. L. (1995). The limits of secularization: on the problem of the catholic revival in nineteenth-century Germany. The historical journal, 38(03), 647-670. Anderson, M. L. (1986). The Kulturkampf and the course of German history. Central European History, 19(01), 82-115. Becker, W. (1981). Der Kulturkampf als europäisches und als deutsches Phänomen. na. Blackbourn, D. (1998). The Long Nineteenth Century: A History of Germany. Oxford University Press: New York. Blanke, R. (1983). The Polish Role in the Origin of the Kulturkampf in Prussia. 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