Arabasis of Alexander - Essay Example

Arabasis of Alexander Alexander the Great was one of the greatest Commanders1 that ever lived. He descended from royal blood and was the son of Olympias and Philip, the queen and king of Macedonia (Fuller 55-66) He inherited the throne in 336 BCE when Phillip was murdered (Fuller 55 – 66) Great teachers taught him to be a brave soldier and one of the greatest leaders of all time. Alexander is considered to be one of the greatest conquerors whose first conquest began with the invasion of Italy. Thereafter, he had fought some of the fiercest battles and expanded his kingdom from the Balkans to the Nile and to the Himalayas. Aristotle, one of the greatest philosophers was Alexander’s personal teacher who had an immense influence on his life. He commanded great respect from his subjects and enemies alike and is known to have conquered a major part of the world through his different conquests and campaigns. At the tomb of Achilles, which Alexander visited when he was in Ilium, the realization dawned on him that the feats of Achilles had been preserved for generations as he was “fortunate in getting Homer as the herald of his fame to posterity” while for “himself this privilege was wanting, a thing which was not in accordance with the rest of his good fortune.” Arrian undertook the task of recording the exploits of Alexander, the brave hero, who “neither accompanied another man's expedition… who achieved exploits so great or important either in regard to number or magnitude as he did.”(bk. 1) Driven by the desire to cement Alexander's place in history, Arrian wrote “The Anabasis of Alexander”, a meticulous, authentic record of Alexander the Great's campaigns, in which he details the great military feats of the man who would have been emperor of the world had his life not been cut short when he was barely in his 30s. "Alexander is distinguished from all other great generals, in that he was uniformly successful in every type of war - it is because his generalship was put to so universal a test that he takes his place as the head of the great captains". (Fuller, J.F.C.)2 Alexander is hailed as the greatest conqueror the world has ever seen, and his exploits on the battlefield are as much the result of his daring and bravery as they are of his tactical skill coupled with his oratory, which enthused his troops to go all out and win the battles, so that they could win back the lands “from the foreigners inhabiting Asia” and restore it once again to the Greeks. (bk. 1) Alexander was a soldier first and foremost, being trained in the martial skills by Philip of Macedonia, his father. Alexander was called upon to head his father's army when he was barely 20, owing to the assassination of his father and he proved that he was a worthy successor, by quickly consolidating his grip on Greece and the other areas of the North, towards the river Danube. He then turned his attention towards subduing the mighty Persian Empire, and it was in the battles fought between the armies of Alexander and Darius,3 that the former’s tactical prowess won the day for his forces even though they were hugely outnumbered by the Persians. The Macedonian army continued its unrelenting campaign easily crossing the Hellespont and was soon near the river Granicus, which Alexander called a “paltry stream.” (bk. 1:13) where Alexander easily defeated the Persians. Alexander’s Commandership is evident from the way he handled the situation. Even though his troops were outnumbered by the Persians, yet his strategic placement of his troops and the way he fired the confidence of his men through his inspiring speeches. The next important battle which Alexander fought was the Battle of Issus, in which his revolutionary concepts of warfare tilted the scales in his favor, despite the military might of the Persians. Darius moved towards Issus through the Amanic Gates, and upon reaching it captured many of Alexander’s soldiers, who were too ill to travel, and ‘cruelly mutilated” them. From here he moved to the river Pinarus, to the rear of Alexander, and camped in the bay. Darius had already made the mistake of relocating his troops “from the spacious plain” into a narrow piece of land where Alexander knew that his troops could “deepen their phalanx by marching from front to rear.” (bk. 2:7) In such an enclosed place the great number of troops, of Darius, would be hardly of any use. Leaving some of his men to reconnoiter the gates, Alexander led the rest of his troops to the gates. They reached it around midnight and rested there for a while. In the morning Alexander led his army down the road, in a column, and when the mountains gave way to the plains, he ordered the columns to open out into a phalanx. He led his “ heavily armed infantry” (bk. 2:8) and when they had reached a piece of land “spread out a little in breadth” (bk. 2:8) he commanded his horsemen, consisting of the Companions, Thessalians and the Macedonians themselves. He stayed put with this group, on the right-wing and sent another contingent of Allied Greeks, to the left, under the command of Parmenio. Darius on the other hand, had arranged his phalanx on the “right-wing near the sea facing Parmenio.” (bk. 2:8) Some of his troops were stationed on the mountains on the left, but the narrow ground proved of no use, and so Darius redirected them to the right, and “himself occupied the centre of the whole army,” in the tradition of earlier Persian kings. Darius contribution towards looking at Alexander as a great Commander was when he proved that he was a man of poor judgment and this can be seen in the way he directed his troops during battle and from the foolish way in which he occupied the centre of the army. Upon seeing this change in position, at once Alexander diverted his Thessalian cavalry, ordering them to ride unseen, behind his own phalanx. The lancers were arranged on the right, immediately in front of the cavalry. He further arranged his phalanx on the right into two separate wings. One faced Darius and the bulk of the Persian army, across the river, while the other faced the Persian forces stationed on the mountain. Alexander realized that his right phalanx had weakened and so he moved two of his Companion squadrons to the right and also the archers from the mountain, to strengthen it, leaving only “300 horsemen to watch the men on the mountain.” (bk. 2:9) Alexander's army moved very slowly because he knew that Darius had come to the battlefield with a view to defending his territories while he himself was on the offensive. He did not want ‘the phalanx (to) fluctuate from the line and get separated from the rest.” But as soon as they reached the river, Alexander's forces changed tactics, charged ahead in full speed taking the Persians by surprise “just as Alexander had conjectured.” (bk. 2:10) Even on the battlefield Alexander rode among his troops inspiring them with his words to “show their valor.” Darius, on the other hand, seeing the rout of his army “began to flee in his chariot” (bk. 2:10) and Alexander pursued him, but not before securing his phalanx and driving back the Greek mercenaries of the Persian army away from the river. (bk. 2:10) The presence of mind on the battlefield in changing his tactics once again proves that Alexander was a great commander, whereas Darius realizing his foolish mistake flees for his life from the battlefield. After taking over the Persian camp Alexander visited the women of Darius’ family, treating them with great respect, a trait which he never abandoned. His battles were fought not out of hatred for another but to regain the Asian empire, says Arrian. Stories of Alexander’s diplomatic exploits and had already spread, so that he took possession of Byblos and Sidon, without a fight, while at Tyre, the ambassadors of the city proclaimed to him that they had ‘decided to do whatever he might command.’ (bk. 2:15) Alexander was keen to offer a sacrifice at the Temple of Heracles, but for this, the people refused him entry, since they did not want to anger the Persians as the war between Alexander and the Persians had not yielded a result and they were keen to remain neutral. Alexander was keen to fly his banner on Tyre, as the city would ensure for him command over the seas, which he lacked. In order to subjugate the people Alexander had to use inventive ways of conducting the battle, which testify to his military genius, and it was the combination of engineering and military skills which won for him the city. Tyre was a walled city on an island half mile off the coast and a very important port for the Phoenicians. Alexander did not have a standing fleet of ships by which he could attack the city, so he constructed “a mole from the mainland to the city” so that his troops could go by foot and attack Tyre. While the Macedonians were constructing the mole they were “assailed with missiles from the walls” (bk. 2:18) and “with the triremes” by the Tyrians, thus disrupting their work. Alexander once again applied his military acumen, constructing upon the mole, two towers and equipped them with ‘engines of war” so that his army could counter attack. Fully aware that the Tyrians would rain fired arrows on them, Alexander had his men covered the tower with raw hide, as insulation against this. When the people of Tyre dispatched a ship full of combustible material and attacked the mole, burning down the towers, Alexander was not disheartened and instead “began to construct a wider mole” which could accommodate more towers. Fortune favors the brave, is an oft heard axiom, and in Alexander's case this proved to be true. The kings of the neighboring kingdoms, upon hearing of the defeat of the Persian forces, soon became allies of Alexander, and equipped him with their naval might. Alexander had always understood that fighting in the phalanx was a battle fought in the mind, and this is seen especially in his siege of Tyre. Although the Tyrians had been prepared for a battle at sea, they had not reckoned that Alexander would commandeer such a “vast multitude” of ships. This was another point that proved that he was a great commander beyond any doubt. Here too, Alexander took them by surprise, but he had been hoping that the enemy would attack, but was disappointed when this did not happen. He immediately changed his plans, and instead of entering the city by force, arrayed his ships, and equipped it with “the engines of war.” (bk. 2:21) When the Tyrians cut off the cables of Alexander ships, he used chains as anchors. The Tyrians then attacked some of the moored ships, seeing which Alexander moved those ships, commanded by him, to the mouth of the harbor, to prevent the Tyrian ships from sailing out. He himself “took the quinqueremes” sailing around the city towards those ships which had escaped. Alexander's presence unnerved the enemy, who was soon scattered. Having weakened the enemy thus, Alexander decided to breach the city walls and having accomplished it, with great difficulty, scaled thus the walls of the city and “advanced through the battlements to the royal palace.” Alexander’s tactical military exercises were backed by the force of his personality and his skill in rousing and enthused his troops by the force of his powerful speeches. This skill was particularly useful in times of war especially during the times when they were considerably outnumbered and suffered low morale. He had been schooled in the art of public speaking, especially rhetoric, by Aristotle, the great Greek philosopher. Alexander was one of the first to engage in psychological warfare, not only when dealing with the enemy, but also his own troops. Before the battle of Issus, he collected his generals, commanders, the leader's of his allies exhorted them to face the Persians with courage as it was a “foe who had already been beaten.”4 He reminded them of their past victories, underlining the fact that they were all “defending the interests of Greece” unlike the Persians whose soldiers were in the fight only for the pay and “that pay not high.”5 (bk. 2:7) His troops were composed of the “Thracians, Paeonians, Illyrians, and Agrianians… robust and warlike of men in Europe,” while he described the Persians as the “most sluggish and effeminate races of Asia.” Arrian describes this speech of Alexander just before the assault on the Persians, as one in which could be seen as arguments which would “encourage brave men in such a critical moment before the perils of battle.” (bk. 2:7) The Battle of Issus is considered to be one of Alexander’s greatest victories. This particular battle was not considered a very decisive victory for him, but despite the fact that they were outnumbered and his men were tired, he had won this battle. According to (Arrian 153 – 155) the allies were Darius and the Persians: Greek mercenaries, and the Kardakes Alexander and the Macedonians: the Thessalians, and the Agrianes (Arrian 155-157) The Battle of Issus has some very interesting facts. For example, this battle was not fought at Issus but on the Pinarus River which lay on the South – eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea. (Hammond, 96) The battle was fought between Alexander and Darius, a Persian General. The Persians had 600,000 men, Alexander only had 75,000 (Arrian 155) Alexander’s troops were greatly outnumbered by Darius, but even so Alexander did not lose heart but instead gave a rousing speech to his men and then positioned them ready for battle after segregating his cavalry, the Thessalians and his Macedonians on the right and sending all the other allies to the left. Darius stationed 30,000 Greek mercenaries against the Macedonian phalanx and on either side 60,000 Kardakes, who were allies of the Persians, he also put 20,000 men on the ridge to face Alexander's right (Arrian 147-155). The battle was fierce between the two sides but The Persian left gave way very quickly, a quick victory for the Macedonians (Arrian 161). The Greek mercenaries soon took advantage of a gap that had appeared in the right flank of the phalanx of the Macedonians and hence they drove a deep wedge across the line while Alexander geared his cavalry for action against the opposing army. ‘Since the Persian left wing had been defeated so quickly, Alexander moved his right wing to the center to help out, this caused Darius to retreat since he was in the center, and then the rest of the Persian army soon gave way’ (Arrian 163-165) Darius took flight and the Persian army soon gave way without its leader (Arrian 163-165). Alexander and a part of his army gave chase but Darius had a good head-start and they were unable to capture him. Alexander returned to the Persian camps and looted the tent of Darius taking away so many precious items. Darius was thought to be dead because a part of his armor had been found and his family went into mourning. Alexander told them not to worry because Darius was not dead and he treated them in a manner befitting a royal family. After the battle ‘they had a funeral for the Macedonian dead’ (Arrian 168) both the sides had encountered heavy losses. Conclusion Alexander, through his victorious conquests had changed greatly the trend of modern – day war. Though the Battle of Issus is considered to be a major battle fought between the two great Generals Alexander and Darius, it was not the last, but was followed by other ensuing battles. Alexander’s knowledge, valor and presence of mind remains unparalleled even to this day. Fuller explains that Alexander never married for love but for political reasons and that too twice. Alexander died in Babyln in 324 BCE (Fuller 55-66) References Arrian. Arrian: History of Alexander and Indica 1. Trans. E. Iliff Robson. Cambridge: Harvard, 1967. Alexander’s War Tactics at the Battle of Issus. www.richeast.org/htwm/Greeks/Issus/Issus.html E.J Chinnock, 1893, LIFE AND WRITINGS OF ARRIAN. http//isidore-of-seville.com/library-arrian/events-1.htm Fuller, John Frederick Charles. Generalship of Alexander the Great. Rahway, New Jersey: Quinn & Boden, 1960. Fuller, J.F.C. The Generalship of Alexander the Great. New Brunswick, New Jersey, Da Capo Press. 1960. Hammond, Nicholas G. J. Alexander the Great: King, Commander, and Statesman. New Jersey: Noyes, 1980. Necdet Zeki Gezer Ve Kemel …… www.anayasa.gen.tr/ece-golu.htm http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book1a.asp Major Battles of Alexander’s Asian Campaign. http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/ArriCamp.html Top 10 Reasons Alexander the Great… www.livescience.com/history/top10_alexander_great.html Read More