Islams Role in Early Islamic Conquest - Essay Example

Section/# The Question of the Islamic Religion’s Underlying Role in the Process of Early Islamic Conquest Introduction: Historians have long sought to answer the question of what defined the rapid success and territorial gains that the Islamic Empire was able to effect within the first few decades after the faith itself was established. The ultimate question that pervades this discussion is whether or not the religion of Islam played a pivotal and fundamental role in the early success that the Islamic Empire was able to achieve. In other words, was the inclusion of the Islamic faith a central component to why the Arab led invasions of the vast swaths of territory throughout North Africa, Central Asia, Southern Europe, and parts of India and China were ultimately as successful as they were. The importance of this particular research question is contingent upon the role of Islam in a geopolitical sense; arguably something that has a great deal of relevance within the current era. Yet, beyond this, the cultural dynamics and importance of Islam as not only a faith but as a strategic cornerstone of how the Islamic Empire was able to spread an experience early victories is a further component of the research that this particular author seeks to shed a level of light upon. As will be denoted within the forthcoming discussion and analysis, it is the strong and overarching belief of this particular analyst that the religion of Islam played a pivotal and fundamental role in the rapid success and expansion of the Islamic Empire. Both through an analysis of primary and secondary texts, the reader can infer that without the norming influence of the Islamic religion and culture, such an Empire would have never held together; nor have been able to threaten the existing structure of power that existed within these regions at the time in question. Likewise, rather than analyzing the role and influence of the religious aspects of Islam on the formation, durability, and strengths of the Islamic Empire throughout all of history, the discussion and analysis that will be presented within this particular research will be solely contingent upon the first several decades after Mohammed came in full control of Mecca and Medina; essentially christening the dawn of the Islamic expansion and the creation of a geo-political movement that would culminate in empire building. Culture and Islam: The cornerstone of the argument for the importance of the Islamic religion with respect to the spread of the early Islamic Empire ultimately is contingent upon the issue of culture. As one might expect, seeking to define something as complex and overarching as Islamic culture is in and of itself a difficult task. This is of course due to the fact that with respect to any world religion, the impact that it has upon its adherents is great and can affect various aspects of life. Whereas certain world views can impact upon the way in which a person dresses, interprets science, or integrates with the rest of society, a religious interpretation demands are oftentimes much more overarching and can impact upon such diverse aspects as art, music, language, and/or architecture. Speaking of Islamic culture in such broad and overarching terms is not different and requires that the reader understand the full weight and complexity in with which such a world view impacts upon each of these distinct areas of life (Wilkins, 2010). Although the aforementioned is of course not a complete and/or exhaustive list, it does allow for a tantalizing peek into the means by which a tradition such as Islam affects and impacts upon the way in which such a broad variety of aspects of human thought and behavior are evidenced. Firstly, with regards to language and the culture of Islam, the reader can and should understand the impact that the Koran has had on Islamic life (Clarke, 2014). This holy book stands as the testament of Allah passed down through his prophet Mohammed. Accordingly, it is the Islamic tradition that the Koran should be read in the original language that it was received in; i.e. in Arabic. Such a cultural understanding of the importance of Arabic within Islamic tradition has meant that Arabic is spoken and oftentimes understood in as far away places as Malaysia and sub-Saharan Africa. Similarly, with regard to the shared influence of architecture that so much of the Islamic world exhibits, this can be understood as a function of the early Islamic Empire that sprawled across North Africa, parts of southern Europe, the Caucuses; even as far away as the deepest parts of Central Asia. The architectural culture was spread due to the manner in which mosques were built in these newly conquered territories. As a function of the style that the Arabs integrated with the rest of their empire, a shared effect and impact was realized on all parts of the Islamic world. Of all aspects of Islamic culture, even an individual with practically no education with regard to such matters can easily identify what they would consider to be “Islamic music”. This is due to the fact that Islamic music in much the same way as Islamic architecture was passed along to the various cultures and ultimately adopted. However, with respect to Islamic music, this is a unique aspect due to the fact that it is highly syncretic with other forms of music and interpretations of method and theory (Donner, 2008). Although the terminology and lyrics that are sung are oftentimes non-religious, many of the instruments that are utilized as well as the particular types of intervals that the instruments play lend one to easily be able to recognize that it is Islamic in origin. Lastly, it should be noted that in addition to the preceding factors not being representative of an exhaustive list, cultural shifts have a massive impact upon the way in which so called Islamic culture can be defined. Due to the very large geographic reach and ethnic composition of the Islamic world, and early Islamic Empire, each of these groups necessarily had traditions and cultures prior to their conversion to Islam. As a function of this, the full range and complexity of the various means by which Islamic culture differentiates from itself is vast (Simonsohn, 2013). Ultimately, each particular culture integrates by a different means and carries over a degree of past tradition and understanding with relation to either architecture, music, and/or their level of integration with Arabic. Such a level of syncretism cannot and should not be understated; rather, it is the responsibility of the reviewer/researcher to integrate with such an understanding as a means of realizing the unique differentials and lack of uniformity that exists within Islamic culture (Campi, 2010). All too often, individuals seek to lump all forms and exhibitions of Islamic culture into a single easy to use and easy to understand definition; however, the reality of the fact, as has been explained herein, is that a range of cultures and interpretations exist – further complicating the understanding of Islamic Culture and the impact of religion on the conquests of early Islam. How Religion Normed and Solidified Previously Segmented Peoples: Within this understanding of culture, it is the argument of this particular analyst that the religion of Islam played a vital and immeasurable role in the spread of the Islamic Empire and the ultimate power that it was able to exhibit. Delving briefly into the history of the early Arab tribes, it is clear and apparent that the early history, as well as history dating to only a few years before the Islamic conquest, illustrated a situation in which these tribes were anarchical, unified, and ultimately had no prior claim to any level of military success on a large scale (Inam, 2013). Yet, even though racial distinctions did not separate these tribes, familial lines and historical affinity or aversion to one another had created a system by which the Arab tribes had never unified as a single entity. With the introduction of Islamic culture and the religion that superseded it, this barrier was all but destroyed. Prior to the introduction of the Islamic religion, the Arabic tribes that proved to be so instrumental in the spread of Islam had little reason to cooperate in a common cause; regardless of the fact that they did share strong racial and linguistic, as well as regional, similarities (Donner, 2008). However, with the introduction of Islam and the norming impact that it had, the degree and extent to which these previously separate entities came together was drastically increased. Interestingly, it is at this particular juncture that most sociologists and political scientists would point to the fact that religion, race, language, and geography are the most important component of whether or not a given group of individuals will form into a nation or an identifiable group of some other variety. As such, the early Arab tribes had all of these; except for an identifiable and coalescing religion (Dietrich, 2014). With the introduction and widespread adaptation, oftentimes by force, of the new religion, the potential of this particular region and the likelihood that an empire and conquest would ultimately result was drastically increased – if not all but guaranteed. A further historical analysis lends one to understand that for centuries, arguably millennia, the Arab tribes that existed within Saudi Arabia and elsewhere within the Arab world posed a little if any threat to their neighbors; however, within 70 years of the adaptation of Islam and its spread from Mecca throughout surrounding regions, the power and influence of this particular group was felt. As was indicated within “Al Maggari: Tarik’s Address to His Soldiers”, Tarik said, "Remember that I place myself in the front of this glorious charge which I exhort you to make. At the moment when the two armies meet hand to hand, you will see me, never doubt it, seeking out this Roderick, tyrant of his people, challenging him to combat, if God is willing” (Horne, 2010). This equally represents the military component of the Islamic conquest, joined at the hip with the religious undertones, helped to define it. Moreover, the power vacuum that a weakened Persian and Byzantium Empire created was rapidly filled with a renewed vigor that emanated from an empowered and hopeful Islamic Empire (Nickel, 2011). Up until this point, the analysis has mainly been contingent upon indicating that the religion and culture of Islam was an essential component in the way in which the Islamic Empire was able to develop and exhibit a dizzying array of territorial gains and wealth within the first few decades of Islamic history. Yet, the actual mechanism by which this was able to function is not solely contingent upon creating a normative aspect of people and providing for decreased tensions within otherwise warring factions. Essentially, the religion of Islam served not only as a mechanism by which further conquest was encouraged; it also served an extremely important role of providing a rubric of law and societal constraints that defined the way in which conquered peoples would behave towards one another, towards those who conquered them, and how those individual conquerors would manage the territorial and monetary benefits of their conquests. Many forces throughout history have been able to exhibit vast territorial gains over a relatively short period of time; especially with power vacuum between one or more dominant forces within the region is exhibited (Kuiper, 2014). As one of the primary sources engaged for this analysis indicated, the Muslim conquests were defined by a strict set of rules that determined how the conquerors would interact with the subjugated. Says the source, “As for the province of Egypt and any city that agrees with its inhabitants to pay the land-tax to you and to submit to your authority, make a treaty with them, and do them no injury. But plunder and take as prisoners those that will not consent to this and resist you” (Accounts of the Arab Conquest of Egypt, 1998). Yet, the case of the Islamic Empire is something of a unique entity; due in part to the fact that the territorial gains that the Islamic Empire was able to make within the first several decades of its exhibition proved to withstand the test of time for centuries to come. Whereas historians might quibble with respect to the territories within Southern Europe and/or the territories that formerly belonged to the Byzantine Empire, the vast majority of the Islamic Empire remained intact up until the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire prior to World War I (Donner, 2008). Yet, the key differential that helps to separate the Islamic Empire from others has to do with the fact that Islam in and of itself served as a geopolitical stabilizing force; able to extend Sharia over the areas that it had conquered and interact with its subjects based upon nearly universal standards. Furthering the understanding that religion had a core and fundamental complement in the rapid spread and that of the Islamic Empire, the reader should consider the fact that even though there were occasions which strong disputes were exhibited within the early Islamic Empire, the majority of these potential disputes were solved based upon an interpretation of Scripture and deference to holy men that could defuse these potential divisions prior to further hardship being exhibited. Islam as a Call to Arms: In tandem with the legal aspect of Islam, and Islamic culture, it also must be understood that the religion of Islam itself also provided a fundamental motivator for individuals to engage in territorial expansion and subjugation; far more than would have been the motivation if only land and resources were the prime motivation. According to the dictates of Islam, it was well within the believers expected activities to engage in the expansion of religion; both by peaceful means as well as by holy war and the expansion of an Islamic state. Not surprisingly, as a function of ensuring that such an empire would have structural integrity and be able to self perpetuate, there were not racial overtones to who could be considered a Muslim and could not. As one of the primary texts indicated when describing how the Muslim Empire came to control swaths of territory that comprised black Africans, “These people have a natural talent for dancing to the rhythm of the tambourine, without needing to learn it. There are no better singers anywhere in the world, no people more polished and eloquent, and no people less given to insulting language. No other nation can surpass them in bodily strength and physical toughness. One of them will lift huge blocks and carry heavy loads that would be beyond the strength of most Bedouins or members of other races. They are courageous, energetic, and generous, which are the virtues of nobility, and also good-tempered and with little propensity to evil. They are always cheerful, smiling, and devoid of malice, which is a sign of noble character” (Abû Ûthmân, 1998). Such a take on African peoples from a Judeo-Christian worldview is not only difficult to find, it would have been unlikely within the same time period. Yet, as the religion of Islam afforded no discrimination based upon race and understood distinction only between believers and non-believers, this differential was minimized throughout the empire; equating to a more robust and meaningful union between peoples. Likewise, the Prophet Mohammed stipulated that acceptance of individuals from different racial and cultural backgrounds must be afforded; providing that they believe in Allah and that Mohammed was his final profit. In such a manner, the Islamization of the Islamic Empire was the essential starting point towards which further success could be determined. Essentially, the early Islamic Empire began with Arabic tribes fanning out over the Arabian Peninsula and in promoting their religion and political system over those that they subjugated. Said one primary source, “When Amr took full possession of the city of Alexandria, and settled its affairs, that infidel, the governor of Alexandria, feared, he being both prefect and patriarch of the city under the Romans, that Amr would kill him; therefore he sucked a poisoned ring, and died on the spot” (Balādhurī & Hitti, 2002). In little to no time at all, the breadth and scope of the Islamic Empire spread far beyond the racial confines of Arabic speaking peoples; or those descended from a common Arabic background. Accordingly, this self-perpetuating nature of the Islamic Empire and the ultimate secret as to why it was as successful as it was is contingent upon the fact that it assimilated individuals from different backgrounds at such a rapid rate and was able to encourage them to engage in further territorial expansion. This thereby decentralized the Arabic influence that the early Islamic Empire ultimately had and encouraged converts and newly conquered peoples to see themselves not as a separate and enslaved mass; but rather to see themselves as an integral component of something greater and something that possessed a noble strength (Shoemaker, 2014). Law and Islam: By envisioning themselves as more than merely conquerors, individuals involved in the spread of Islamic civilization and religion viewed their calling as one of essential religious importance. Naturally, the success of the spread of Islam within the Islamic Empire was measurable; at least with respect to the rate of conversion that conquered people exhibited (Barton, 2009). In retrospect, Western historians have oftentimes been prone to understanding that conversion to Islam took place at the point of sword. However, the fact of the matter is that only a few such examples of violent conquest, one in which entire cities or civilizations were put to the sword, was only exhibited in a handful of situations (Donner, 2008). For the most part, conquered peoples were slowly co-opted into the Empire and the power, conviction, and fervor of Islam proved to be a defining catalyst towards ensuring the cohesion of the Empire and encouraged future generations to seek to earn their own religious rights as a function of the activities they took part in (Latham & Christenson, 2014). A key example of the longsuffering role of patience that Islam encouraged is related within Al Baladhuri’s account of the Battle of Yarmuk. Says Al Baldhuri of an interaction that took place between a group of Christians and Muslims that had recently conquered the land that the Christians had occupied: “According to another report, when Jabalah came to Umar ibn-al-KhattAb, he was still a Christian. Umar asked him to accept Islam and pav sadakah [a Muslim alms tax] but he refused saving, "I shall keep my faith and pav sadakah." Umars answer was, "If thou keepest thy faith, thou least to pay poll-tax". The man refused, and Umar added, "We have only three alternatives for thee: Islam tax or going whither thou willest." Accordingly, Jabalah left with 30,000 men to the land of the Greeks [Asia Minor]. Ubadah ibn-as-Samit gently reproved Umar saying, "If thou hadst accepted sadakah from him and treated him in a friendly way, be would have become Moslem" (Balādhurī & Hitti, 2002). Even as the modern interpretation of the Islamic conquests are quite brutal, the fact of the matter is that the process was oftentimes deeply rooted in discussion and diplomacy; rather than merely choosing t slaughter all inhabitants of a given region. As indicated above, the choice to live in the Ummah was given; and up to the subjugated people to accept or reject. As most individuals within the modern era are all too intimately aware, salvation within Islam can be conducted by one of two means. Firstly, the individual can live a just and full life, ascribing to the minutes of Islam, or they can offer themselves in the service of jihad; both a figurative and literal expression of struggle against unbelievers. Regarding the concept that Islam defined the actions of the larger group, Al Baladhuri related the following in his piece entitled, “The Conquest of Alexandria”: Hearing the news, Amr set out at the head of 15,000 men and found the Greek fighters doing mischief in the Egyptian villages next to Alexandria. The Moslems met them and for one hour were subjected to a shower of arrows, during which they were covered by their shields. They then advanced boldly and the battle raged with great ferocity until the polytheists were routed; and nothing could divert or stop them before they reached Alexandria” (Al Baladhur: The Conquest of Alexandria, 2014 p. 1). Recognizing the fact that Islam was a rallying cry for greater cooperation within the arena in question, few can doubt the fact that Islam had a prime role in the expansion and rate of victory that the Islamic Conquest was able to exhibit. Whereas it is ultimately possible that the Islamic Empire could have expanded to the extent that it did without this vital concept, a deeper level of analysis lens one to believe that the concept of jihad is tantamount to the success of the Islamic Empire was able to achieve in the reason for why so many individuals gave themselves to seeking to accomplish such an end. Ultimately, the sacrifice noted within the concept/precepts of Islam exhibits a core differential between the ways in which the Islamic Empire was able to spread as compared to many of the other empires that have been exhibited throughout the course of history (Donner, 2008). Whereas it is doubtless true that individuals that followed leaders such as Genghis Khan might well have believed it his leadership and even been willing to sacrifice themselves for his honor, it is unlikely that any other army has been able to elicit such a level of courage and conviction that the Islamic armies of the early Islamic period were able to denote. Conclusions: Returning to the central and overarching question of the role of the Islamic religion played in the early success and spread of the Islamic Empire, it is the understanding of this analysis that the victories that were achieved, the culture that was defined, the unity that was encouraged, and the fervor that was elicited could not have been possible without the religion of Islam backing each and every decision and choice that was taken; especially in the years defined as the early Islamic Empire period. Whereas it has not been the goal of this particular research to compare the Islamic Empire to any major world empires that had existed previously, or even those that have existed since, one can adequately denote that the Islamic conquest bears key differentials to any other Empire; specifically with respect to the way in which it was able to assimilate individuals and encourage those subjugated peoples that it conquered to further this struggle and continue the expansion of Islam (Armstrong, 2012). Because of the pseudo-geopolitical nature that Islam exhibits, or at least exhibited during the period in question, many scholars have gone so far as to identify the religious movement as one that has strong governmental and political ambitions. As compared to Christianity, Judaism, and many other world religions, detailed instructions for the way in which subjugated peoples should be dealt with and the means by which conversion and continual struggle for expansion of the faith, and an increase in territory (the Ummah), helps to define Islam as compared to almost any other major world religion. Though it is not the purpose of this particular analysis to make a value judgment based upon whether this particular facet of differential between Islam and many major world religions makes Islam better or worse as a geopolitical or religious movement, it necessarily has had a profound and lasting impact with respect to the way in which global history has been decided. Even within the current era, the legacy of the Islamic Empire persists; with many individuals within the Islamic community believing that they are still part of a larger whole; defined not only based upon culture, language, and geospatial relations – but based upon a religious entity that was crafted from the very beginning of Islam and based upon the writings and teachings of the Prophet Mohammed. It is this very precept that continues to be extraordinarily relevant with respect to the way in which Muslims see the world based in terms of how other Muslims are treated and how differences in ideology and background pale in comparison to the broader interpretation of what it means to be a member of the Muslim community. Bibliography Abû Ûthmân, a. (2014). Internet History Sourcebooks Project. [online] Fordham.edu. Available at: http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/860jahiz.asp [Accessed 27 Aug. 2014]. Accounts of the Arab Conquest of Egypt. Internet History Sourcebooks Project. [online] Fordham.edu. Available at: http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/860jahiz.asp [Accessed 27 Aug. 2014]. Armstrong, L 2012, The Rise of Islam: Traditional and Revisionist Theories, Theological Review, 33, 2, pp. 87-106, Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost, viewed 22 August 2014. Balādhurī, A. and Hitti, P. (2002). The origins of the Islamic state. 1st ed. Pascataway, N.J.: Gorgias Press. BARTON, S 2009, The Great Arab Conquests: How the Spread of Islam Changed the World We Live In – By Hugh Kennedy, Early Medieval Europe, 17, 4, pp. 466-467, Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost, viewed 22 August 2014. Campi, E 2010, Early Reformed Attitudes towards Islam, Theological Review, 31, 2, pp. 131-151, Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost, viewed 22 August 2014. Clarke, N 2014, Damascus after the Muslim Conquest: Text and Image in Early Islam By Nancy Khalek, Journal Of Islamic Studies, 25, 1, pp. 65-67, Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost, viewed 22 August 2014. Dietrich, DJ 2014, Founding Gods, Inventing Nations: Conquest and Culture Myths from Antiquity to Islam, European Legacy, 19, 1, pp. 113-114, Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost, viewed 22 August 2014. Donner, F 2008, The Expansion of the Early Islamic State (The Formation of the Classical Islamic World). Edition. Ashgate. Horne, C 2010, The Sacred Books and Early Literature of the East. 1st ed. [Whitefish, MT]: Kessinger Pub. Co. Inam, H 2013, Power and Authority in Religious Traditions in Islam Reflections about issues of power and authority in the traditions and the present situation of Muslims in Europe, European Judaism, 46, 1, pp. 66-74, Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost, viewed 22 August 2014. Kuiper, MJ 2014, The Roots and Achievements of the Early Proto- Sunni Movement: A Profile and Interpretation, Muslim World, 104, 1/2, pp. 71-88, Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost, viewed 22 August 2014. Latham, A, & Christenson, J 2014, Historicizing the ‘New Wars’: The case of Jihad in the early years of Islam, European Journal Of International Relations, 20, 3, pp. 766-786, Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost, viewed 22 August 2014. Nickel, G 2011, Conquest and Controversy: Intertwined Themes in the Islamic Interpretive Tradition, Numen: International Review For The History Of Religions, 58, 2/3, pp. 232-258, Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost, viewed 22 August 2014. Shoemaker, SJ 2014, "The Reign of God Has Come": Eschatology and Empire in Late Antiquity and Early Islam, Arabica, 61, 5, pp. 514-558, Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost, viewed 22 August 2014. Simonsohn, U 2013, "Halting Between Two Opinions": Conversion and Apostasy in Early Islam, Medieval Encounters, 19, 3, pp. 342-370, Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost, viewed 22 August 2014. Wilkins, CL 2010, Honored by the Glory of Islam: Conversion and Conquest in Ottoman Europe, Journal Of The American Oriental Society, 130, 4, pp. 646-648, Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost, viewed 22 August 2014. Read More