Foreign Policy of America towards Japan - Coursework Example

Foreign Policy of America towards Japan by Date Introduction The united States-Japan relations are very strong even today with U.S being the largest economic partner accounting for 31.5% of its exports. Japan being one of Asia’s most successful democracies and largest economically is crucial for U.S security interests in Asia and is fundamental to stability and prosperity of the region (US Department of state 2014). The US-Japan relations date back to 1853 when Commodore Matthew Perry sailed to Japan in a cauldron of steamships to hand in president Fillmore’s letter. The relationship was not cordial at first as Perry had to use threats to force Japan to break its culture of isolation and enter into relations with the United States. However, Japan had limited trade with the Dutch and Chinese before opening its doors to U.S. This led to signing of the 1854 Treaty of Peace and Amity at Kanagawa. Full diplomatic relations began in 1858 through negotiations by Townsend Harris which led to signing of Treaty of Amity and commerce. Further negotiations followed leading to signing of more treaties especially to do with security in time of war. The relations were not a coincidence but a strategic decision by foreign policy makers in US especially the president who wanted to expand trade in the western region and the pacific was a suitable route to those areas and also China where US had interests. Japan led by Tokugawa Shogunates was opposed to any dealings with foreigners especially the West so as to safeguard its borders and strengthen its domestic interests. However, opening the borders to US and European countries was a turning point for its growth and modernity especially technologically. The US-Japan relations since then have been cordial especially in commerce and security. The purpose of this essay is to discuss the extent to which foreign policy of America towards Japan was driven by economic considerations. Countries adopt different policies when dealing with the rest of the world. Some countries opt to be realists while others are idealists. Kaufman (2010) asserts that most citizens do not care about foreign policy as they think it does not affect them in any way but Kaufman thinks foreign policy decisions affect everyone. This is because if a decision is made on trade for example to establish foreign companies or allow a foreign company to invest in the country, these same citizens consume these goods manufactured in different countries hence are affected in one way or another. It is for this reason that the public is often opposed to certain foreign policies and thinks that a country should concentrate on domestic issues and intervene in foreign issues only when it is absolutely necessary. Foreign policy according to Kaufman involves decisions such as where to locate companies or trade in general, who can enter the country and from where (Immigration) and relocation and outsourcing decisions which are routine in nature (2010 p. 2). He thus defines foreign policy as “an ongoing process of assessing and evaluating previous or existing policy in light of changing circumstances” (p. 2). Foreign policy decisions are of different types. A country can decide to be engaged in the world hence adopt internationalism or engagement or it can decide to separate itself from rest of the world thus adopt isolationism or unilateralism. Japan before 1854 had chosen to adopt an isolationist policy thereby secluding itself from the rest of the world for over 200 years (Auslin 2006; Cullen 2008). The modern international history of Japan thus began in 1858 with the signing of unequal commercial treaty with US. The Tokugawa bakufu used negotiations as a diplomatic tactic to defend Japanese interest from foreigners and even the Meiji who took over from Tokugawa Shogunates in 1868 used the same tactics. The Bakufu in this case were instruments of Shogunal power in foreign relations. Other domestic actors were not allowed to engage in policy making and the diplomacy involved “ideological, intellectual and physical boundaries” (Auslin 2006, p. 14). Japan had an in-ward looking culture and foreigners were not allowed to live near big cities or near the seat of power so as not to influence policies. This made it hard for Americans to negotiate for trade treaties with Japan as they could not get access to commercial cities like Kanagawa but were relegated to Yokohama a small town size of a village. This would hinder Americans from carrying out commerce effectively. Nagasaki was the trading complex of Japan and bakufu were free to keep anyone they wanted out of it. Japan thus applied realist theory of international relations and adopted the isolationist policy before and America and other European nations compelled it to cooperate with rest of the world. The U.S on its part was an idealist believing in cooperation among nations for peace and prosperity. Idealists (Kaufman 2010) believe that security is best achieved if countries work together rather than being in competition with each other. This view is the reason behind the creation of international bodies such as the United Nations, NATO and European Union among others. Idealists also believe in free trade as it allows all countries to benefit from economic cooperation. For example, the policies of Woodrow Wilson during World War I were justified using this theory. Woodrow claimed to make the world safe for democracy. The foreign policy of United States is often made by the executive branch and especially by the president and the secretary of state hence the president is accountable for any eventualities of such a policy. However, whatever the policy adopted it should be in the interest of the nation. As for policy orientation, while Japan adopted isolationist policy the US adopted unilateralism and engagement although it adopted isolationist policy in 1920 to 1941during World War II (US Department of State, 2014). It thus engaged economically but avoided making foreign alliances. Though the United States adopted unilateralism in foreign affairs, it engaged itself with the rest of the world incrementally in Western hemisphere using Monroe Doctrine then expanded to Japan and China where it had economic and business interests (Kaufman 2010 p. 22). Its involvement with Japan was to expand its trading opportunities. As noted earlier, the United States using the Monroe doctrine of manifest destiny had expanded into North America and wanted to annex California. It also had interests in China and thus the pacific region was vital in achieving its goals. The U.S boats sailed through the pacific to China and California hence wanted to control the region. Moreover, its steam ships often got wrecked in the ocean especially in Japan thus they wanted a means of protection for those ships. As such, founding relations with Japan was fundamental for achievement of national interests. Furthermore, Japan had huge deposits of coal which was essential for the American ships. This is the reason president Fillmore sent navy commander Commodore Matthew C Perry in 1853 to Japan to initiate friendly relations. He went there with steam ships and since Japan was behind technology it felt threatened by this technological advancement. At first Japanese authorities refused to let Perry into their territory but since it felt weakened it allowed Perry to pass the letter from Fillmore to the Emperor. Perry insisted on not giving the letter to anyone other than the emperor but what he did not know was that the Emperor was just a figurehead as real power rested with Tokugawa Shoguns (Perry 1856). Perry secured a treaty on March 31, 1854 known as the Japan-US Treaty of Peace and Amity. The treaty opened two ports for America (Shimoda and Hakodate) to trade. It also guaranteed safety of the ships wrecked by US sailors in Japanese coast and protection of ship wrecked persons. The treaty also gave permission for ships to buy supplies, coal, water, and necessary provisions in Japanese ports. It also allowed for establishment of a consul at Shimoda. However, it did not give permanent residence to Americans. The treaty thus offered peace and friendship to Americans but not guarantee for trade or commerce (US Department of State, 2014). The treaty was unequal because the Japanese accepted all the terms that had been laid out in the letter by Fillmore and did not consider the Japanese interests. The treaty can be viewed as economic in nature since it served US economic interests in the pacific region. Besides, opening the ports for trade meant the US and Japan could start trading in future. For now, what US wanted was to protect its ships and to find a place to replenish coal so that its trade could thrive. The whaling industry of US also needed a safe harbour and assistance such as supplies and Japan was the solution. Besides these achievements, the US was granted Most-Favoured Nation (MFN) clause which meant future concessions to other foreign powers would also be granted to US. Seven years later the first Japanese embassy in US was established to ratify new Treaty of friendship, commerce and navigation in 1860. Japanese also wanted a revision of some of the unequal clauses in the Perry treaty but they were not able to accomplish this goal. The first consul from the US to Japan was Townsend Harris a New York Merchant who arrived in Shimoda in 1856. The Japanese were not very welcoming as they still held their isolationist policy and foreigners were unwelcome in their territory. As such, Harris languished there especially due to diseases until late 1857 when he was allowed to present President Franklin Pierce’s letter to shogun, Tokugawa Lesada at a ceremony in Edo castle (Auslin 2006 p. 36). To force them to consider his request, Harris lied to them of inevitable European invasion if they did not open the ports for trade but that America was ready to help them. This threat was discussed by the tribunal which comprised of finance magistrates. The tribunal was more concerned with the effect of trade on Japan’s domestic economy and bakufu’s economic position. They were thus reluctant to open trade with the US although they were willing to relax trade restrictions. The defence officials on the other hand, were worried about the safety of the country especially as Europeans had forced China to trade with them through violent means. The generals preferred peaceful relations with the rest of the world considering the weakness of Japan’s coastal defences. Negotiations were to be spearheaded by Iwase a Japanese maritime defence official (LaFeber 1998). It was especially difficult to convince the public of why Japan was better of cooperating with America thus the tribunal used delaying tactics to avoid discussing the issue with Harris. Iwase had to convince the public that freer trade was “part of overall strategy for strengthening bakufu control over both domestic and foreign issues” (Auslin 2006 p. 37). It was meant to maximise the shogunate domestic authority. Despite, the delay tactics Harris negotiated a treaty in 1858. From onset, the negotiations were economic in nature as Harris sought to establish a location for open ports, residence, trade and coaling station for American steamers. Harris also wanted Americans to be allowed to rent land and buy buildings. He also sought extraterritorial rights in order to prevent US citizens from being placed under foreign laws (Auslin 2006). At last, the treaty was signed in 1858 and allowed a permanent diplomatic agent to reside in Japan and also Japanese diplomats to establish residents in the US. The treaty also gave Americans rights to live in designated ports, lease and buy buildings. The right to trade freely with Japanese in the port areas was granted. The treaty also established fixed tariff rates thus denying the Japanese the autonomy to set tariffs. Another issue was the extraterritorial right in foreign settlements thus freeing Americans accused of crime in Japan from being judged by Japanese authorities. For the first time in Japanese soil, Americans were to freely exercise their religion. Japan had for centuries banned any practice of Christianity within Japanese borders especially the Catholics. This shows Japan was relaxing its strict foreign policy and being accommodative. The treaty also stipulated renegotiation procedures for treaty although no date was set for its expiration. The last item on the treaty was the restatement of the Most-Favoured Nation clause that was adopted during the Perry convention (Auslin 2006 p. 44). From this Treaty of Amity and Commerce at Edo (Tokyo) it is clear that the US-Japan relations were economic in nature as both countries sought to serve their economic interests especially the US. For example, the US made sure to restrict Japan’s autonomy is setting tariffs as this would have been unfavourable to the US. By having fixed tariffs US was at an advantage economically since it could export its products to Japan at lower cost while Japan did not have a lot of goods to export to America. Furthermore, trading freely with Japanese at the ports would ensure economic growth of both regions. However, Japan retained its isolationist policy by not allowing Americans to reside in the large city Kanagawa but restricted trade to Yokohama which is much smaller and away from centre of commerce (Auslin 2006). This was the centre of disagreements between US and Japan as they wanted to be allowed access to Kanagawa. According to LaFeber, Japan was a closely knit society terrified of disorder while America was a sprawling, open-ended society that fears economic depression and seeks international marketplace (1998, pp 106-116). For America, Japan is an important source of financing for its huge deficit. The years before World War I were cordial between Japan and US. Most Japanese migrated to Hawaii which later became part of US in 1898. Though the area was predominantly occupied by Japanese, Japan government did not do anything to stop US from annexing those lands and neither US do anything when Japan took control of Korea. President Theodore Roosevelt also was involved in the negotiations to end the war between Japan and Russia in 1905-06. Japan and U.S also signed the Commerce and Navigation Treaty in 1911. However, US did not like the fact that Japan refused to adopt Open Door Policy to ensure that all the nations would be able to do business with China on equal basis (LaFeber 1998). Japan was more interested in China especially with the rise of Meiji over the Shoguns. They were not willing to give up their interest in China for any reason even if it meant non cooperation with America. Moreover, America forbid immigration from Japan in 1924 as it was trying to protect itself from communists. This saw the soaring of relations between US and Japan in 1930s during the Great Depression culminating into the attack of Pearl Harbour by Japanese in 1941 (LaFeber 1998). Japan was dependent on oil from the US accounting for 80% of its oil. This dependence made Japan to avoid conflicts with the US but it was determined to find other sources of oil so as to protect its pacific interests. At first, the U.S did not use military or economic threats against Japan as it did not want to disrupt its lucrative trade with Japan. This is despite the Neutrality Acts which prohibited US from selling goods to countries at war. However, the US pulled out of the Treaty of Commerce and Navigation in 1939 and passed the Export Control Act in 1940 restraining exports of oil, iron and steel to Japan. It also imposed a full embargo in 1941 restricting all oil shipments to Japan and freezing their assets in America (US Department of State, 2014). This was to prevent further expansion of Japanese into China where the US also had economic interests. In reaction, Japan arranged an attack on Pearl Harbour leading to entry of the US in the World War II. US declared war on Japan which lasted for four years. It ended in 1945 with atomic bombing by US in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. All these tensions according to Cullen (2003 p. 239) were prompted by economic interests. US had recognised Japanese special position in China in 1917 but Japan was not accepting an Open Door Policy to level the playing field. The end of World War II marked the beginning of occupation of Japan by the Allied forces which included US, Britain and France. During this period, relations were still soar between the US and Japan. However, the San Francisco Peace Treaty in September 1851 ended the Allied occupation thereby resuming normal relations between US and Japan in 1952. The 1952 Mutual Security Assistance Pact renewed Japan-US treaty for ten years and was to ensure more cooperation internationally and also improved economic cooperation. Contrary to the unequal commerce between the two countries before the war, relations after the war were on equal footing as Japan had emerged as an economic power. Japan was in need of economic assistance from US thus the continued relations with a favourable balance of payment with US being achieved in 1954 (LaFeber 1998). This is due to the much spending by US on aid and military in Japan. Besides, the US had spent a lot during the war hence its budget was experiencing deficits. Conclusion The Japan-US relations date back to 1854 when Commodore Matthew Perry of the US navy was sent by President Millard Fillmore to present a letter to the Japanese Emperor. Since Japan had an isolationist policy, it was not ready to welcome Perry but he used threats and force to hand in the letter. The relations began by signing the Treaty of Peace and Amity in 1854 but real diplomatic relations began in 1858 with signing of the Treaty of Amity and Commerce between Townsend Harris and Tokugawa Shoguns establishing foreign concessions, extraterritoriality, and fixed tariffs; it was an unequal treaty. However, with the end of Tokugawa Shogunates and beginning of Meiji Restoration in 1867 relations began soaring abit as the Meijis wanted to expand into China for economic reasons. The two countries also signed the Treaty of commerce and navigation in 1911. 1920s-1930s was full of tensions as US banned immigration from Japan and Japan invasion of China which led US to end the treaty of commerce and navigation and impose trade embargo on Japan. This culminated into the attack of Pearl Harbour in 1941 and four year that ensued ending in 1945 with atomic bombing of Japan by US. However, normal relations resumed in 1952 after the Allied occupation of Japan were disbanded. Evaluation of Sources Auslin, Michael R (2006) Negotiating with imperialism: the unequal treaties and culture of Japanese diplomacy. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Auslin is an assistant professor of history at Yale University. The information on this book is compiled from original notes and journals of Commodore Perry and his officers. The book gives a good account of the culture of diplomacy of Japan and the reasons behind their isolationist policy. It also gives a clear account of the treaties that were entered into by Japan and United States. Cullen, Louis M (2003) A history of Japan, 1582-1941: internal and external worlds. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cullen is a professor of modern Irish history at Trinity College Dublin and a visiting research scholar at international research centre for Japanese studies. Her work comprises the events that led to the emergence of modern Japan both internal pressures and external pressures. It is thus a good book for readers wanting to know how Japan foreign policy was before and after entry of the United States into the scene in 1854. She argues that Japan before 1854 was retrogressive economically and socially but Japan was still a successful country with great negotiation skills. Kaufman, Joyce P (2010) A concise history of United States foreign policy. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. Kaufman is a professor of political science and director of Whittier scholars program at Whittier College. She gives a historical view of US foreign relations and gives a clear explanation of how foreign policy is formed and how it works as well as the theories of international relations. The book is thus useful in understanding foreign policy decisions and the actors involved in making these decisions. It is useful in this essay as it helps o understand the policy position of the US and Japan at various points in time. For example, the use of unilateralism policy of US before 1920s and its isolationist policy during WWII. LaFeber, Walter (1998) The Clash: US-Japan relations throughout history. USA: W.W.Norton LaFeber is a professor of history at Cornell University and an author other books such as “The clash and inevitable revolutions.” He gives an account of the tensions and disagreements faced by Japan and US in their relations. He depicts the period as a century and a half of economic, cultural and violent clashes between Americans and Japanese owing to their cultural and ideological differences. The book is thus helpful in understanding the tensions that existed in the Japan-US relations especially in the 1920s -1930s as deep rooted in the systems of these two countries; Japan being terrified of disorder and America fear for depression. Perry, Matthew C (1856) Narrative of the expedition of an American squadron to the China seas and Japan. New York: D. Appleton and Company. Perry was a navy commander and this book gives a detailed account of the journey undertaken by this commodore to the use to secure friendly relations as well as opening Japan to trade. It is thus helpful in understanding the great sacrifice made by these people for the sake of national or economic interests. US Department of State (2014) Milestones: 1830-1860. Office of the Historian. Available at http://history.state.gov/milestones/1830-1860/China-2[Accessed March 30, 2014]. The office of the historian is a guide to the US history of international relations. It gives information on US embassies abroad, the history of recognition and diplomatic relations of various countries. It is thus a good starting point to understand relations between US and Japan. Jones Steve (2014) The United States relations with Japan before World War II: how diplomacy cascaded into war. About.com. Available at:http://wwww.usforeignpolicy.about.com/od/asia/a/The-United-States-and-Japan-Before-World-War-Ii.htm[Accessed March 30, 2014] Jones gives a detailed timeline of events that took place between the US and Japan just before World War II. This is the period from 1854 to 1941. He explains the reasons for the severed ties between the two countries and why both countries were reluctant to intervene in each other’s affairs. For example The US did not react when Japan invaded Manchuria despite being against it. It thus helps to understand the economics involved in Japan-US relations. References Auslin, Michael R (2006) Negotiating with imperialism: the unequal treaties and culture of Japanese diplomacy. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Cullen, Louis M (2003) A history of Japan, 1582-1941: internal and external worlds. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kaufman, Joyce P (2010) A concise history of United States foreign policy. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. LaFeber, Walter (1998) The Clash: US-Japan relations throughout history. USA: W.W.Norton Perry, Matthew C (1856) Narrative of the expedition of an American squadron to the China seas and Japan. New York: D. Appleton and Company. US Department of State (2014) Milestones: 1830-1860. Office of the Historian. Available at http://history.state.gov/milestones/1830-1860/China-2[Accessed March 30, 2014]. Jones, Steve (2014) United States relations with Japan before World War II: how diplomacy cascaded into war. About.com. Available at:http://wwww.usforeignpolicy.about.com/od/asia/a/The-United-States-and-Japan-Before-World-War-Ii.htm[Accessed March 30, 2014] Read More