The Fall of the Roman Empire and the Transformation of Europe - Essay Example

? The Fall of the Roman Empire and the Transformation of Europe The Roman Empire was undoubtedly one ofthe most influential states that western Eurasia has ever known. It's legacy is experienced in the architecture principles we take for granted to the languages that more than half of the world communicates in. Taking into account the modes of transportation in comparison to today's technology - the sheer size of the empire is even more breathtaking. How is it then that such a well-oiled machine that came as close to perfecting a governmental system out of all the ancient empires, one that is still partially mimicked in governments today, collapsed? Some would say that the legacy left after the physical decline of Rome was so influential, that the Roman Empire never collapsed to begin with, but rather remained in ideology. Others would argue that the Roman Empire merely relocated to the east and continued to live in prosperity there. To observe how the Roman Empire has affected civilization through its rise and fall, we shall look at the transformation Europe underwent in the centuries following the Capital's demise. The question to initially ponder would be: what caused the decline and fall of the Roman Empire? On this issue, scholars have and continue to differ in option. A general consensus is that it was a multitude of reasons. The most popular being the adoption of Christianity, the continual invasion of barbarian hordes, and the gradual decline of social structure. In 410 AD, after 800 years of security, Rome was conquered and sacked by the Visigoths lead by Alaric I. Only 30 years after the adoption of Christianity as the state religion, it is hard to argue that this did not play into its destruction. Barbarians, however, were by no means a new threat. Rome struggled for centuries before containing the threats of pagan tribes such as the Visigoths, Vandals, Alani, Allemanni, and even the Huns lead by the notorious Attila. The Empire, at least the western half, had been in decline for a while and the sacking of Rome was the final nail in the coffin. In 476 AD, Romulus Augustulus, the final Roman emperor of the west, was removed from power by Prince Odavacar, a Germanic ruler who controlled the remnants of the Roman army. He then banished the regalia to Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. The Roman Empire was then broken up and governorship was given to dozens of princes and kings. Power was based on military forces comprised of immigrants from former Roman provinces. The impact this revolution had on life in the former western Empire is immense. The spread of the Roman Empire was, for many, a symbol of education, literacy, advanced economic policies, sophisticated architecture, and a established and successful judicial system. The end of the Roman Empire, at least the western front, signified a death of the above and an entrance into a dark age. The eastern portion of the empire, however, went on to survive the collapse of the western portion, and became known as the Eastern Roman Empire. It went on to thrive in the sixth century under the reign of Justinian I. (Okamura 489). The specific dates of the fall of the Roman Empire can be attributed to the period 337 - 476 AD. Although this in itself could be a oversimplification. Firstly, this is specifically referring to the fall of the Western Roman Empire and that New Rome was to stand for a further thousand years. Secondly, the fall of Rome was not instantaneous. There was no specific event which led to the immediate downfall of the Empire. The first contributor to the downfall of Rome was the spread of Christianity and Christian thought amongst the Empire. Following Theodosius the Great's death in 396 AD, the Empire was divided into East and West amongst his sons. The progression of Christianity meant that new churches and Christian influenced architecture were built and buildings from the classical period were left to decay. The Emperor was met with increased difficulty and resistance in the Western Empire as power was transferred to the hand of landowners and the military. Most often these two groups were not even of Roman provenance. The Christian church additionally increased in influence and power and resisted the Emperor. Due to this internal crumbling, the opportunity for barbarians from the north to access cities and town within the Empire was increasingly easy. Finally, in 410, Alaric, the commander of the Visigoths brought Rome and the known Western Empire to a collapse. Several barbarian dominions formed from the remains of the Empire. At the same time, Attila, the commander of the Huns, was invading the eastern portion of the Western Empire. They conquered vast territories up until Gaul, now France. It is here that the army was halted and defeated by a united army of Goths and Franks. As shown, the causation of the collapse of Rome was no single event, but rather a collaboration of the mentioned reasons, and more. How did this collapse shape and mold Europe and society in the following decades and centuries? To begin, in the days of Rome's height, thought was encouraged, and for the most part, ideas could be shared and discussed freely. However, as Europe's landscape changed with the carving up of territories by the barbarians, so did free thought and education. Without established cities and forums where ideas and knowledge could be shared, Rome's system of education faltered and decayed. Originally, Roman children were sent to school from a young age where they were taught to read, write, add and subtract, and the basis of Roman law. Upper-class boys then continued onto secondary education that focused on more specific subjects such as grammar, expressive speech, and Greek. From there young men would enter rhetoric schools and learn even more advanced subjects. With the collapse of the Empire and continual conflict being the norm, warfare and combat training replaced intellectual education. Being a warrior became an honorable profession - and a path most young men went down. Education was contained in the growing monasteries, where it was heavily censored and watered down. (Halsall 384). Perhaps Christianity was a reason for the collapse on the Empire, perhaps not. One thing is for certain - Christianity did not crumble with the Empire. In fact, it flourished. The Church became the primary, and in many causes, the only source or education and information for scholars. It was therefore the center of all intellectual thought and learning during the Middle Ages. Many would agree that this is why the Middle Ages could be considered a period of intellectual demise. It certainly bred a culture of ignorance and superstition within Europe. Many areas became rural as cities collapsed and because of the isolation, people were not able to readily turn to the Church for advice. Superstitious beliefs and pagan rituals sprang up throughout Europe - even in largely populated areas. In fact, it is recorded that many believed Pope Sylvester II to be a wizard because of his knowledge of astronomy - a clear indication of rife ignorance. While Pope Sylvester II found this to be unproblematic, other scholars were continually accused of being in league with the Devil. A fact we can clearly see numerous examples of throughout the Middle Ages. A very different situation from the days of the Empire when educators were honored - in fact some educators were given citizenships and considered exempt from taxation and public duties. During the years that followed the collapse, an atmosphere of paranoia was created and the few intellectuals left in that period would mostly keep in the shadows out of fear of persecution. (Halsall 385). Literature was another area that was affected after the fall of Rome. Or rather, the lack of literature. In fact, the population of Europe, with the exception of the clergy, became so illiterate that there is barely any preserved text from that period that was not produced through means of the Church - and that was mostly theological doctrine. In fact, illiteracy was so rife, that even rulers and lords might not have the ability to read. The culture of education, of the book form, was limited to the Church and its clergy. It would take centuries of illiteracy before non-clergy would have the privilege of being able to read and write again. A further transformation in Europe was that of its population. In the former Roman Empire, there was a 20% decline in population between 400 AD and 600 AD.   For close to a thousand years, Rome held the title of being the most important, the largest, and the most prosperous city in the world.  Rome's population had passed a million by 100 BC.  Its population fell to a mere 20,000 during the Early Middle Ages, turning the once mighty city into a barren wasteland of overgrown vegetations, ruins, and scattered inhabitants. A barely unrecognizable site to Roman citizens of perhaps a few centuries earlier. The justice system was entirely replaced. In Ancient Rome, the standard belief and practice was that the defendant was innocent until proven guilty before a judge or a panel of judges. This system was gradually replaced by one of inconsistent, biased, and often times cruel justice. Accused criminals amongst Germanic administered regions were placed before a judge and forced to prove innocence. If a verdict could not be given, which happened to be the case quite frequently, three different types of trials could be initiated: compurgation, trial by combat, and trial by ordeal. To elaborate, trial by ordeal involved the defendant grabbing a stone at the bottom of a pot of boiling water and burning themselves severely in the process. If the burns showed any signs of healing within three days then the defendant was proven innocent, otherwise they were hanged. This is one example of many types of cruel methods of justice - a far fall from the courts of Rome. This form of justice extended to the Church, considered amongst the rulers of the regions to be the voice of authority on issues of justice. Through the years, the Church's forms of justice became increasingly erratic and self-serving. Justice often resorted to torture and accusations of witchcraft and wizardry became commonplace. This behavior of course led to what we now know as the Inquisition. (Halsall 140). The Early Middle Ages is a period in the history of Europe following the decline and collapse of the Western Roman Empire covering approximately five centuries, 500 AD to 1000 AD.  The era of the migrations has historically been termed the "Dark Ages" by some Western European historians, and as Volkerwanderung, or "wandering of the peoples," by German historians. By 530, with the decline of old Roman economy and urban centers in shambles, the western Roman Empire had fragmented into a handful of kingdoms under Germanic rulers. Europeans were left with the need for self-sufficient without the protection of Rome. The self-sufficient economy transformation in Europe following the fall of Rome included de-urbanization and a decline in trade. Without the domination Rome regional elites became more self sufficient and local traditions flourished. Everywhere, the gradual breakdown of economic and social linkages and infrastructure resulted in increasingly localized lifestyles.  This breakdown was often fast and dramatic as it became unsafe to travel or carry goods over any distance.  Europe experienced a consequent collapse in trade and manufacture for export.  Major industries that depended on trade, such as large-scale pottery manufacture, vanished almost overnight in places like Britain. Due to the complete breakdown of any form of healthcare and infirmaries smallpox was able to enter Western Europe around 581. This is observed from the eyewitness account of Bishop Gregory of Tours who described the events in detail - and recorded the characteristics of the disease, which match what is now known as smallpox. Smallpox spread in waves around Europe, wiping out chunks of rural regions and populations. Most records of the plague are now lost, due in part to the poor forms of storing written works. However, it is estimated that this plague, known as the Plague of Justinian, caused as many as 100 million people to die across the world, although most deaths were in Europe. Some historians have suggested a total European population loss of 50 to 60% between 541 and 700.  After 750, major epidemic diseases would not appear again in Europe until the 14th century when the Black Death struck. (Nelson 192). The fall of Rome impacted government and rule immensely. The most significant period affected was directly after the Empire's disintegration. The lawlessness rife now in Europe, the decaying of infrastructure and communication methods, and the lack of education all contributed to the rise of feudalism. During Ancient Rome, the emperor and senate rules from Rome in a way similar systems of government in the modern world today. The Empire was highly organized and citizens were respectful to their government and willing to follow the laws and rules. It was perhaps the loyalty of so many citizens that cemented the longevity of the Empire. Yet as this system disintegrated, there was need for a more basic form of government. Charlemagne introduced feudalism into his sphere of reign. As he found it impossible to rule his large territory through officials who reported directly to him, due to the insubordinate nature of these new citizens of Europe, he divided up most of his land amongst his nobles. The nobles were then to serve and report to him. Whilst this methods worked for a brief time, by the beginning of the ninth century, regions began to war with one another. There was no longer any form of global or universal government and lords and rulers now depended entirely on force to rule their lands. Europe fell into a constant state of war and time and resources were spent developing technology that could be used in warfare and combat. Cities grew incredibly slowly, or not at all in feudalistic society. Each time a city was attacked or a region invaded, the citizens would disperse into the countryside in order to escape. Although the Western Roman Empire collapsed, the Eastern portion continued to thrive. The legacy of Rome's bureaucracy, governing systems, and economy were left to the Eastern Roman Empire at the end of its reign. Even though Europe didn't have an solid political order or unity, the Byzantine policies established order within much of Eastern Europe. The Empire continued trade, education, and cultural and commercial exchanges. A stark difference to the devolving west. The unity within the Eastern Empire protected it even though it faced outside threats for hundreds of years after the fall of its sister empire. After the separation, Constantinople became the new capital of the newly formed Byzantine Empire. Still of Roman culture and law, the Byzantine Empire took Christianity in a different direction and eventually considered the original Roman version as heresy. In fact, in 1054 the Eastern Orthodox religion, heavily influenced over time by other eastern nations, excommunicated any version of the old religion. The Byzantine Empire thrived for another millennia after the fall of Rome in 410. This could be attributed to many factors such as superior trade location, remote and tough terrain, or even the preservation of some Roman ideals. But with this evidence of prosperity and the continuation of the empire until it was destroyed in 1453 by the Ottomans. The Eastern Empire was successful in comparison the Western Empire for several reasons. Firstly, most of the legions of the Empire were stationed within the Eastern portions and would end up remaining there, even with the fall of the Western Empire. Secondly, the Eastern Empire had a larger population. This meant that there was a bigger tax base and a larger labor force. Thirdly, the Eastern Empire had trade routes and partnerships set-up that were highly profitable internally and externally, which provided a steady flow of income. Finally, the Eastern Empire specialized in approaching foreign policy with an attitude of adaptively. In other words, they did not only rely on force as a means, much like the regions in Western Europe. They were flexible and adaptable and masters of diplomacy and that is one of the main reasons why they succeeded the Western Empire. (Halsall 137). While Rome as a city and empire physically fell, empires are not only contained to physicality. Rome was also an empire of ideas and influences and the question must be asked: did those ideas leave a legacy that fed the continuation of the empire. Furthermore, as the Eastern Roman Empire continued to thrive and base many of its methods and ways of life on the united Roman Empire, could you argue that the empire survived through those means? I do no regard the Byzantine and Roman Empire to be separate civilizations. Rather, the Byzantine Empire was an evolved state or the traditional Roman Empire. It learned to adapt to the changing world. Also language and tradition might have changed in ways, Byzantines considered themselves to be Romans. The name "Byzantine" is a 19th century invention. Citizens called themselves 'Roumanio', meaning 'Romans'. The culture was different from the traditional or classical Roman Empire, but that was purely adaptation. If you compare the culture of the Roman Empire in 100 BC with that of the culture in 300 AD, you would also notice a large change in the culture. Further attributing to the fact that the empire continued was that Rome, before falling to invading forces, moved its capital to Constantine. If a modern day country was at war, moved its capital to a safer city and then lost its old capital to foreign invaders, you would still consider the remaining territory and the new capital to be of that country. Additionally, in many ways the Roman Empire is the foundation for modern western civilization. There are many ways in which Rome has left a legacy that still survives today. Firstly, Romans were great patrons and lovers of art. A thousand years after the physical fall of the empire, Roman art was rediscovered during the Renaissance. Artists were inspired by Roman art and the Renaissance led to a period of intellectual enlightenment. Roman art has continued to influence painters and sculptors. Architecture and engineering principles have come from Roman design and inventions. The grand style of Roman buildings inspired many architects through the centuries. Medieval architects, for example, frequently imitated Roman designs, especially in building the cathedrals that can be witnessed today. The Roman language of Latin has defined and shaped many of the languages used in the world. English has borrowed heavily from Latin, both directly and by way of the French, who themselves speak a Latin based language. Roman philosophy, law, and ideas about citizenship were passed on to future generations and countries and continue to thrive today. Modern legal codes in several countries around Europe are based in part on the ancient Roman laws. Another legacy that influenced governments is the idea of Roman justice. Although this idea was abandoned during the feudal period, it became very popular again over the last few centuries. The Romans believed that there was a universal law of justice that came from nature. By this natural law, every person has rights. Therefore, judgments, according to Romans, should be fair, just, and respectful of individual's rights. This principle to make decisions based on ideals of justice as well as on written law continues today in many countries. (Saunders 3). In summation, the fall of the Western Roman Empire drastically affected the development of Europe. The landscape transformed into that of a barbaric society in comparison to the Empire in the former years. With the lack of education, infrastructure, communication, trade, law, healthcare, diplomacy, and universal government, Europe fell into a state of regress. It doesn't seem out of place to call it the "Dark Ages" based on what the previous age represented. Furthermore, with the lack of education and government, the increasingly powerful church placed the mantel of responsibility upon themselves. Due to rigid doctrine and strict laws on education, this new power further repressed intellect within the society. Rome might have fallen, but its legacy survived in the form of the successful Eastern Roman Empire - an empire that continued to demonstrate civility of the Roman Empire of past for a further thousand years. Works Cited Halsall, Guy. "The Fall of Rome and the End of Civilisation - By Bryan Ward-Perkins." Early Medieval Europe 16.3 (2008): 384-86. Halsall, Guy. "Review Article: Movers and Shakers: The Barbarians and the Fall of Rome."Early Medieval Europe 8.1 (1999): 131-45. Nelson, J. L. "The Dark Ages." History Workshop Journal 63.1 (2007): 191-201. Okamura, Lawrence. "The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History (review)." The Journal of Military History 70.2 (2006): 489-90. Saunders, J. J. "The Debate On The Fall Of Rome." History 48.162 (1963): 1-17. Read More