The history of African-Americans - Research Paper Example

? African Americans The history of African-Americans in the US s back to 1600 during the slaveryEra. African-Americans have endured centuries of slavery, racial discrimination and political struggles in the U.S. This paper will address the history of African-Americans after the end American Civil War in 1865. The paper will use the works of different Historians in understanding why Reconstruction Era efforts did not immediately guarantee civil rights and equality to African-Americans. The paper will highlight significant events that contributed to racial violence, cultural identity and black organisations that advanced the movements for social justice and civil rights to African-Americans and ultimately attainment of post-racial American society. The main events that the paper will focus on include the enactment of 13th amendment, Colfax Massacre, Wilmington race riots, Harlem Renaissance, Black power movements and recent election of an African-American as the President of United States. African Americans Introduction A majority of African Americans are the descendants of African slaves that were held in the US from 1600 until 1865. African-Americans were at times referred as the Negro, Blacks, colored Americans and Afro-Americans. African-Americans trace their ancestry from native African tribes in Sub-Sahara Africa (Turner-sadler, 2009). African-Americans mainly came to the US as slaves working for both Portuguese and Spanish settlers. Most of the African-Americans were concentrated in the Southern states and a significant majority worked as slaves in the Southern plantations (Bair, 1997). According to Hornsby (2008), African-Americans history is characterized with racial struggles, violence, agitations for self-identity and determination and ultimately eventual integration in to the mainstream U.S political and social life. Thesis: the history and struggles of African-Americans have greatly contributed to the current civil rights in the United States. Enactment of 13th Amendment and commencement of Reconstruction Era There are numerous significant African-American historical events that shaped the current US bill of rights and social relations in the US. In 1865, American Civil War came to an end after Confederate forces conceded defeat to Union forces (Hornsby, 2008). Accordingly, Freedmen’s Bureau was also established in order to provide education and health services to the emancipated African-American slaves. The first significant event in African-American history was the enactment of the 13th amendment of US constitution in 1865 (Hornsby, 2008). The 13th Amendment effectively ended slavery and involuntary servitude across the United Slaves. McPherson (1971) is of the idea that President Lincoln was concerned that Emancipation Proclamation of 1863 had not effectively prohibited slavery since it had been declared only for Ten Confederate States and not the Border States. McPherson analyses the numerous House of Representative meetings that were geared at enacting the 13th amendments and the intentions of the legislators. According to McPherson, the 13th amendment offered the best opportunity for Reconstruction and end of slavery after the Civil War that had claimed lives of thousands of African-Americans. However, some states did not ratify the amendment the same year while others continued to subject blacks to involuntary servitude (Turner-sadler, 2009). The amendment contributed to the end of African-American slaves and later demand for equal human rights with White counterparts (Turner-sadler, 2009). The 13th amendment also paved way for subsequent reconstruction amendments that provided for equal protection under the law and due process in legal proceedings (Turner-sadler, 2009). Colfax Massacre of 1873 The Colfax Massacre that occurred on Easter Sunday 1873 is regarded as another critical event in the history of African-Americans since the end of the civil war (Laird, 2009). During the riots, more than one hundred African-Americans were killed by a white militia while trying to defend the Republicans in local office in Louisiana (Turner-sadler, 2009). Colfax massacre was occasioned by election stand-off between African-American militia and local whites that sought to protect the courthouse from the white supremacists. The massacre is regarded as one of the deadliest racial violence that occurred during the Reconstruction period. As early as 1872, Black residents had stockpiled arms in the courthouse while the white paramilitary forces were in control of the countryside. The gubernatorial election of 1972 ended in both Democrats and Republicans each claiming victory for the outcome. Whites seized the opportunity to destroy the black voting stronghold through capturing and killing the African-Americans. By the dawn of Easter Monday, more than 100 mutilated corpses of blacks were found littered in Colfax while the courthouse had burnt down (Laird, 2009). Although several white leaders were implicated for the atrocities, they were charged with conspiring to deprive the African-Americans their civil rights and not murder. Accordingly, the defense lawyers argued that the responsibility of prosecuting citizens under the 14th amendment was entitled to the state governments and not the federal government. In the Supreme Court case of United States v. Cruikshank, the court ruled that enforcement of the bill of 14th amendment and bill of rights applied to crimes that had been committed by the state and not individuals (McPherson, 1971). From the perspective of the court, political parties perceived that they were free to continue waging violence against their rivals including paramilitary force against the African-Americans. The massacre redefined the 14th amendment since the subsequent court trials ruled that federal protective powers could only be applied on the acts of an individual, but not when the acts of violence were committed by a mob. Laird (2009) asserts that this event occurred just eight years after the end of American Civil war retarding Reconstruction Era progresses and also increasing the racial divide in American society. Griffin, (p 165) terms Colfax Massacre as the moment when freedom died since America descended back to the Civil War days that were characterized by organised racial violence and rampant racial segregation. Colfax Massacre led to increase use of violence by the Paramilitary groups against the freedmen and White Republicans. The use of violence by white Democrats in order to control subsequent elections like the 1876 elections ultimately dismantled the spirit of Reconstruction in Louisiana (McPherson, 1971). Wilmington Race riots of 1898 The third significant event in African-American history was the Wilmington race riots of 1898. Wilmington is a port city in North Carolina and was mainly occupied by African-Americans at the time of the riots (Laird, 2009). Bair (1997) asserts that the race riots were occasioned by the Democratic Party leaders’ campaign strategy of gaining political control of the town since the campaign was based on propaganda and speeches that were intended at inflaming white voters. Lane (2008) offers an example of how the riots hindered reconstruction efforts by asserting that the Red Shirts used intimidation tactics on African-Americans and forced the Whites to vote for Democratic Party candidates in the election. Democrats favored white supremacy and accused African-American men for having inappropriate relationships with White women, thus leading to tensions between the two races. Democrats won the election through intimidation and lynching black men thus leading to eruption of violence after African-American newspaper house was set on fire (Bair, 1997). Most of the White citizens started to gun down African-Americans thus forcing hundreds to flee the city. The event created the impetus for the formation of several African-American organizations that agitated for the civil rights of black people. For instance, in the year1905, African Americans boycotted streetcars in Tennessee in order to protest against the racial discrimination (Lane, 2008). In addition, the Niagara Movement that created by African-American intellectuals like W.E.B. Du Bois in New York in order to spearhead the demand for African-American rights (Laird, 2009). The event caused mass migration of African-Americans from the Southern states to north states and subsequent formation of black organisations such as National Urban League that helped the African-Americans secure employment in urban areas. In addition, the US society witnessed federal sponsored racial segregation through Jim Crow laws (Laird, 2009). Harlem Renaissance of 1920s The fourth significant event in African-American history was the Harlem Renaissance that began in 1918. Harlem neighborhood in New York was characterized with growing African-American population that demanded political and civil rights through artistic expression (Trotter p 440). Trotter approach aims at outlining how culture influenced the self-identity and self-appreciation of the African-American heritage across the United States during Harlem Renaissance. The event took place between 1920s and 1930s and led great economic, cultural, and identity expression among the talented African-Americans who expressed exciting ideas in books, music, politics, and other aspects of entertainment (Bauman p 276). The main theme of Harlem Renaissance was to promote social integration and challenge the existing stereotypes that had hindered progressive politics in American society. Musicians, actors and writers glorified the African-American highlighted the slavery and struggles that they had encountered during the great migration from south states to northern urban states. African-Americans adapted a new urban and assertive identity in contrast to the old rural and inferior identity that was associated with slavery in the southern states. African-Americans played the roles of theater actors, musicians, writers and casual workers in the factories. In deed, Bauman (p 279) conquers with Trotter (p 450) that Harlem Renaissance led to new African-American art movement, new black music and new identity among the African-Americans. Accordingly, the social events such as dinners played a major role in advancing social change initiatives among the black population across the country. There was a growing influence of African-American intellectuals such as religious figures, political activists and entertainers in US politics. Some of the notable achievement of Harlem Renaissance was the creation of new racial identity and self-acceptance among the African-American population across the United States (Cashman, 1991). African-Americans redefined themselves and appreciated their cultural background including religion through demonstrating that Black was a forceful movement that could create a cultural revolution in the US (Cashman, 1991). The African-Americans artists and musicians expressed their human feelings on the social structure of the prevailing American society such as the realities and problems that racial minority groups were experiencing at that time (Trotter p 451). The activities of Harlem Renaissance inspired and energized other racial minority groups including Hispanics in demanding a just society. Accordingly, Harlem became the political capital for the African-Americans and a considerable number of Black intellectuals spearheaded the formation of Black political organisations that championed the civil rights of African-Americans that led to the onset of Black Power movements of 1960s (Cashman, 1991). Black power movements of 1960s The fifth significant event in the history of African-Americans was the black power movements of the 1960s (Joseph, 2005). The movements were occasioned by the creation of black organisations that were tasked with agitating for black political interests (Joseph, 2005). The movements sought to attain black racial pride and several political goals. Joseph (2005) uses the main political agendas and composition of the black organisations in order to articulate the main aims of the Black power movements. Joseph (2005) claims that the events were characterized by identity politics and protests against the existing structural inequality. For instance, Black Panther Party followed the ideologies of Malcolm X and sought to protect the African-American neighborhoods from police swoops and brutalities against the protesting Blacks (Joseph, 2005). In addition, the movements promoted the cultural interests of the Black people through the provision of health and poverty alleviation services among the poor black citizens. Accordingly, African-Americans collectively felt that they had the right of self-defense against the White authorities and organised criminal groups such as the Ku Klux Klan that terrorized and killed black citizens. Mitchell (2004) asserts that unlike the previous Harlem Renaissance, Black power movement sought to express only Black ideology that could be a formidable force in ensuring progressive social changes in the Black communities. For instance, the movement advocated for the formation of all Blacks only political party that could advance the interests of Black people just like the Whites had formed their own political parties (Mitchell, 2004). Organisations such as National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) started working with Whites in order to eliminate racial segregation in the provision of essential services such as housing and health care services. Young African-American students felt that civil right movements were dominated with White perceptions and ultimately changed SCLC from a multiracial activist organisation to an all blacks change organisation thus instilling pride among the young Blacks (Cashman, 1991). During this period, African-Americans participated in many occupations including casual labour in factories, the military, and entertainment industry and government employment. The black power movements solidified the unity among African-Americans and created opposition towards the White authorities (Johnson, p 597). Joseph mainly looks at the role played by the Churches and church leaders like Martin Luther in advancing righteousness of Black people in poor communities. Black Power movement aimed at creating Black Nationalism and separating from white society, but lacked the essential organised leadership since some organisations within the movement had divergent agendas. For instance, some leaders like Martin Luther preferred the use of non-violent means in protesting while other groups like Black Panther used arms and violent in self-defense. Non-violence philosophy was deeply entrenched in African-American church ideology and religious leaders who easily influence the decisions of Black churches. Martin Luther King sparked the peaceful demonstrations and civil right protests through his peaceful messages that aimed at restoring the dignity of African-Americans in the society. Black power leaders had to prove to the white supremacy there was a need of reforms in the civil rights through selecting imprisonment term rather than paying jail bails. Police brutality was aired by the television thus leading to a series of violent protests especially in Birmingham where Blacks demanded the right of self-determination (Johnson, pp 600). According to Bauman (p 278), the core aims of Black power movements were creation of Black unity and ensuring the Black pride through the right of self-determination. Soul music, theology and black hairstyles are some of the aspects that were associated with Black power movements. Bauman (p 280) asserts that cultural expression aimed at for withdrawal from White society and return to Africa since White dominance was associated with oppression and racial segregation. Although some historians regard the movement as anti-White, the founders claimed that it was pro-Black and mainly aimed at unifying African-American efforts in closing the ranks in the society (Cashman, 1991). Black Power movement generated several positive development that later led to prohibition of racial discrimination in the US. For instance, African-Americans were allowed to express their cultural heritage since many Universities and Colleges started offering African studies programs that allowed the White students to appreciate the cultural heritage of African-Americans (Cashman, 1991). In addition, the movements added momentum to the civil rights movements thus leading to enactment of the Civil Rights Act of 1967 and subsequent legislation that outlawed discrimination in public services such as housing and transport. The ideology of Black power influenced the later political development in US politics since the ideology of Black dominates politics in Los Angeles and Detroit (Cashman, (1991). Election of Barrack Obama as U.S president in 2008 The last significant event in African-Americans history in the US was the election of President Barrack Obama as the 44th US president (Porterfield, 2010). The election of African-American as the US president has been perceived as an appreciation of African-Americans in the US politics. Accordingly, Laird (2009) conquers with Porterfield (2009) that the election of Barrack Obama symbolizes the closure of racial divide that had dominated US politics for centuries. In addition, African-Americans hold the perceptions that the dreams of civil rights activists like Martin Luther King jr have been fulfilled by having a black man as the most powerful person in the U.S (Laird, 2009). Accordingly, the African-Americans struggles that led to the enactment of the 13th, 14th and 15th amendments have satisfied the desires and aspiration of the black community forefathers. Porterfield outlines the different African-Americans voting patterns and the association of the federal government with oppression and racial discrimination especially in criminal justice. Porterfield (2009) is of the opinion that a Black presidency symbolizes the current nature of American struggles and burgeoning middle class that is faced with numerous social problems such as inadequate housing and unemployment. However, Porterfield claims that President Obama’s victory is not an all-Blacks victory since other racial minorities like Latinos, Indian tribes and Hispanics have endured similar racial discrimination and struggles in the past (Porterfield, 2009). Porterfield concludes by claiming that 21st century can be described as a post-racial Era since American politics and culture is currently dominated with two differing ideologies of Republicans and Democrats on how to solve critical social problems like unemployment, high federal debt and health issues (Porterfield, 2009). Conclusion The history of African-Americans after 1865 is characterized with struggles that have contributed greatly to the current civil rights and equality in American society. African-Americans endured several traumatizing events such as racial violence, racial segregation and unfair judicial system before the enactment of the Civil Rights Act 1967. The 13th amendment enactment provided the best moment for Reconstruction and closing the racial divide across the society since slavery and involuntary servitude was responsible for racial stereotypes and segregation. However, subsequent racial riots like Colfax Massacre of 1873, Wilmington race riots of 1898 and numerous unjust court decisions propagated racial violence against African-Americans. The Harlem Renaissance was an awakening moment since African-Americans gained self-identity, unity and self-awareness through cultural expression thus offering an opportunity for demand of civil rights and equality. The Black Power movements of 1960s have been termed as the climax of African-American struggles since Black citizens unified and pressurized the white authorities for civil rights through the use of violent protests. In deed, Black power movements shaped the current US society since it led to enactment of the Civil Rights Act that outlawed racial discrimination and several other Acts the prohibited discrimination in public schools, transport and housing services. The election of an African-American President in 2008 can be termed as a signal of post-racial US society and fulfillment of African-American civil rights leaders’ dreams of equality and justice. References: Bair, B. (1997). Though justice sleeps: African Americans, 1880-1900. New York: Oxford University Press. Bauman, R. (2007). “The Black Power and Chicano movements in the poverty wars in Los Angeles”, Journal of Urban history. 33 (2): pp 275-294. Cashman, S.D. (1991). African-Americans and the quest for civil rights 1900-1990. New York: New York University Press. Griffin, F.J. (2004). “Thirty years of Black American literature and literary studies: a review”, Journal of Black studies. 35(2): 160-175. Hornsby, A. (2008). A companion to African American history. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. Johnson, R.A. (2008). “African Americans and homelessness: moving through history”, Journal of Black studies. Vol 40(4): 2008, pp 583-604. Joseph, P.E. (2005). The Black power movement: re-thinking the civil rights-black power era. New York: CRC Press. Laird, R. (2009). Still I rise: a graphic history of African Americans. New York: Sterling Publishing Company. Lane, C. (2008). The day freedom died: the Colfax massacre, the Supreme Court, and the betrayal of Reconstruction. New York: Henry Holt and Company. McPherson, J.M. (1971). Blacks in America: bibliographical essays. New York: Doubleday. Mitchell, M. (2004). Righteous propagation: African Americans and the politics of racial destiny after Reconstruction. Carolina: University of North Carolina. Porterfield, J. (2010). The election of Barrack Obama: race and politics in America. New York: Rosen Publication. Schiele, J.H. (2005). “Cultural oppression and the high-risk status of African Americans”, Journal of Black studies, July 2005:Vol 35 (6): pp 800-825. Trotter, J.W. (1995). “African American in the city: the industrial Era 1900-1950”, Journal of the Urban History. Vol 21 (4), May 1995 438-457. Turner-sadler, J. (2009). African American history: an introduction. New York: Peter Lang. Read More