The Retrospect of European Upheaval - Essay Example

? The Retrospect of European Upheaval Trade, Triangle, Atlantic Slave trade, Sugar, Toussaint L'Ouverture In 1500 Africa, the premise of civilization had numerous cities and kingdoms like Mali, Songhay, Asante, Ife and Benin. The trades in gold and other luxury goods were already widespread among the various kingdoms. 16th century witnessed numerous achievements of individuals hailing from Africa. Apart from trade there were conflicts as well and Slave trading which was not proliferated until European traders escalated the importance attached to enslavement. Trade developed around a ‘triangle’; from Britain to West Africa taking goods such as Glassware , cloth and ammunition, from West Africa to the Americas carrying enslaved people, and finally from the Americas back to Britain with raw materials such as sugar, tobacco and cotton. This all resulted due to developments in maritime technology as it enabled European sailors to have longer voyage. Enslaved Africans were sold to work on plantations or in the households of the slave owners upon their arrival in America. They grew cash crops – tobacco, sugar, coffee, cocoa – for the European markets. Entrepreneurs on the islands of the Caribbean and in the US depended on slave labour to grow these crops profitably as the labour was cheap. 1500 Africans during the between Spain and Britain war escaped to mountains, evaded capture for 150 years and undertook guerilla warfare against the plantation owners. The French Revolution in 1789 created a new French republic and perturbed Haiti (which was created as a result of Successful rebellion) when the slaves revolted led by the formidable soldier Toussaint L’Ouverture, who himself was once a slave and self educated. He had an army of 100.000 revolts which took control of Spanish Santo Domingo(Now known as Haiti) and freed other slaves. Later on, he agreed to stop fighting if French would abolish the slavery. Mongol Empire, Ottoman Empire, 1453, Sunni Islam When Baghdad fell to Mongols by Slejuks, they declared an independent Sultanate in east and central Asia. Later on the Slejuks were overthrown by Uthman, an Uzbek of the Ottoman clan and proclaimed the Sultan of Asia Minor in 1301. Constantinople, heart of the Byzantine Empire became the capital of the Ottoman Empire when it was conquered in 1453 by the Ottoman Sultan Mehmet II. Mehmet slaughtered many of the population and forced the rest into exile. The city was repopulated by importing people scattered in Ottoman Territories. He renamed Constantinople Istanbul – the 'city of Islam' - and embarked for recuperating physically and politically as he made it his capital. Scramble for Africa, Berlin Conference, King Leopold II, Congo Free State In 1884 a meeting was convened at the Berlin residence of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck. Foreign Ministers from fourteen European Nations and United States promulgated rules for further exploitation of African continent without making the inhabitant’s part of the process. Otto von Bismarck wanted not only to expand German spheres of influence in Africa but had a hidden agenda to play off Germany's colonial rivals against one another to the Germans' advantage. France, Germany, Great Britain, and Portugal were the major players in the conference, controlling most of colonial Africa at the time among the fourteen nations. The French were prevalent in West Africa, while the British had occupied in East and Southern Africa. The Belgians acquired the vast territory which later became The Congo. The Germans ruled in 4 colonies which were all across the region. The Portuguese held a small colony in West Africa and two large ones in Southern Africa. Kind Leopold II had coerced the Africans in Congo to gather rubber, illegal killing of elephants for their ivory and to facilitate export routes, infrastructure was build. Those who failed to meet these tasks were massacred. King Leopold regime is regarded as the most excruciating disasters of Africa as 10 million Congolese had been murdered by the time the bloodshed ended in 1960 as it achieved independence in 1960. Atlantic Slave Trade, Commercial Revolution, Scientific Revolution, Enlightenment Atlantic slave trade involved transportation of 11 million people from Africa to America. 4% came to British rule in North America. Slaves were considered as commercial commodity as African Chiefs and traders benefited from it. Early nineteenth century saw an opposition to slavery and it was abolished in later half the nineteenth century. In the sixteenth century, the economic structure of Europe was affected by inflation as it encouraged investment and borrowing due to handicap supply of goods to meet demands and influx of bullion from other parts of the world. Established trading companies were given augmented leverage by government policies. Traders in East Asia and Arabs were superseded by European traders as colonial markets created demand for manufactured goods in agriculture and crafts. Population growth in Europe by 20 percent between 1500 and 1650 accompanied by urbanization increased the access to wealth among all classes. This led to higher standards of living. Genesis of new class proletariat was realized which suffered from increased prices. This perturbed the society targeting poor and women. Scientific research prevailed in sixteenth century. Galileo, Corpernicus and Kepler’s work came into limelight. New instruments paved the way for advancement in biology and astronomy. The paradigm shift was due to Newton’s work on motion and forces of gravity. Attitudes towards religion altered. Anticipation for human progress emerged as science became the centre of life. The Scientific revolution resulted in the new revolution ‘the Enlightenment’ Adam smith devised that government should not intervene the market forces and manipulate. Enlightenment was more concerning towards human affairs, belligerent about blind religion and intolerant concepts. Economic Equality, protecting impoverished women along with abolition of private property ownership was preached by few enlightenment thinkers. Free people could excel more, children were treated politely and new ideas were pondered in reading clubs and coffee houses. Slavery, European Imperialism, Abolitionist Movement, Enlightenment. European imperialism began with Portugal and Spain in the 15th century. They had the most powerful navies at that time. Portugal Established Power Empire useful for trade Under Henry the Navigator. Abolitionist Movement occurred during the 18th and 19th centuries. It sought to abolish slavery for the descendants of Africa. Atlantic slave trade between Africa, Europe and America ended as a result of Abolitionist Movement. Enlightenment followed the scientific revolution and was more pragmatic and open to the society and people. American Revolution, Latin American independence movement, Caudillos, Jose' de San Martin , American Revolution occurred in last half of 18th century in which thirteen colonies joined in north America to set themselves free from British empire to United States of America. During 18th and 19th century Revolutionary wars were fought against the European colonial rule. Latin American states were realized by agitated movement of independence. Caudillos are the political-military leaders or head of the authoritarian powers. These are also called chief in command of the army. Caudillos have influenced substantial portion of Latin American history and revolutions. One of them was Jose' de San Martin, a simple and modest man born in Argentina and had spent time in Spain as a military officer. He served as a commander for the liberation of Peruvian Independence in 1822. Tokugawa leyasu, Edo, Dejima , Dutch East India Company, Tokugawa leyasu was the responsible for Tokugawa shogunate(feudal regime) of Japan and ruled the battle of Sekigahara in 1600. He was the first Shogun (chief in command of army, later it was used for hereditary military autocrats of Japan). This period is known as the Edo Period which was named after the city capital Edo. Tokyo was the name given to Edo later on. The shogun ruled lasted from 1603 to 1868 until it was overthrown by Meiji Restoration. During the rule Shogun kept an eye on the affairs from their castle. All trade activities were carried out through a small fan shaped island called Dejima during the Edo Period. It was originally built to cater the needs of Portuguese Traders; later on it was also used by Chinese and Dutch as a trading post during 1641 and 1853. It was the only island or area designated for the trade in order to limit the trade with outside world Dutch East India Company, established in 1602, was the first dutch chartered company which offered stocks business. The state’s general of Netherland gave 21 years of jurisdiction to manage the affairs in Asian to augment the colonial regime. The British’s East India Company had already established two years prior to Dutch company. French Revolution, Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, Louis XVI Guillotine, French Revolution (1789- 99) laid the premise for Enlightenment and was of the view that people should have equal rights, citizenship and due rights. The revolution was primarily against the aristocrats, feudal lords and dictators of the Europe. This was documented in ‘Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizens’. It brought into limelight the rights of the man and regarded them as universal pertaining to human nature. . Yet there were individuals like Louis XVI who was pretty much aware of the discontent of the French and was of the view that enlightenment should be incorporated and slavery must be abolished. He also favoured the American Revolution who was seeking freedom from British colonialism. Albeit his efforts the reforms could not be realized and when absolute monarchy in France superseded constitutional monarchy in 1791, Louis engendered wide support. However, his conservative approach led few people astray and his credibility was in question. His sudden flight to Varennes seemed to justify the rumors that king had sought political salvation incase of foreign invasion. Louis was arrested and tried and was executed by Guillotine (During the French revolution Guillotine was used to execute individuals while decapitating them). Mughal Empire, British Empire, Raj, Sepoys Mughal Empire was the Indian subcontinent imperialism. It began in 1526 and ended in war of independence of 1857. Whereas, the British Empire in 16th and 17th century is considered to be one of the biggest Empires. It had almost one 5th of the world’s population. They had overseas colonies and settlements. It was often said that sun never sets on the British Empire due to its vast rule. Raj is associated with kingdoms and often linked with British Raj, which means the British rule in Indian subcontinent. Whereas, Sepoys was the Indian soldier at the time European Empire. Enlightenment, Copernicus, Rene' Descartes, Mary Wollstonecraft Enlightenment paved the way for various philosopher, thinkers and mathematicians. Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543) was associated with the Copernicus revolution which laid the foundation for various scientists to follow as he proclaimed that earth is not the center, rather it is the sun. Rene Descartes (1596-1650) was French philosopher and mathematician who contributed in scientific revolution a great deal. He was the father of modern philosophy. Mary Wollstonecraft(1759-1797) was British writer who advocated women’s rights. She was of the view that men and women should be treated equally. Women should not be considered inferior in any aspects to men. The retrospect has highlighted the various prospects of European history. Starting from the time of slavery and up until the late 19th century, Europeans had ruled quite vigorously and diligently. Various events occurred during the course. Individuals were famed, battles were fought. Revolutions were instigated and slavery was abolished. Imperialism gave way to enlightenment. Rights of the people were protected. Women and children were given due respect during the course of events and equality prevailed. Commercial and scientific revolution gave a unique direction to world. Numerous philosophers, mathematicians and thinker came into limelight. The European rule was not only limited to Europe and proximity, it rather spread overseas as well. They influenced, manipulated and handled the resources and land of east as well. This brought several changes to the culture, society and norms in east as well. The European upheaval has intrinsically shaped the world for future generations. References Jacob, Margaret C. The Enlightenment, A brief history with Documents. Boston: Bedford/ St. Martins, 2001. Jeffries, Robert Bideleux and Ian. A history European crisis and Change, second Edition. New York: Routledge , 2007. Pearson Education. 1995. 19 March 2012 . Read More