Battle of Waterloo - Research Paper Example

?Principles of War: The Battle of Waterloo “Principles and rules are intended to provide a thinking man with a frame of reference”. Karl Von Clausewitz Introduction: The theory of warfare entails the use and application of various strategies which help in gaining supremacy regarding, or preparedness of, one's physical forces and offers a significant material advantage at the decisive moment, on a battle field. Since the achievement of such an objective is rarely feasible in practicality, although theoretically plausible, the theory of warfare attempts to teach and calculate the moral factors such as the mistakes which the enemy is likely to make; or the impression which can be created to intimidate the enemy forces. Written almost two centuries ago, by a renowned Prussian thinker and theorist, Carl von Cluausewitz, these highly controversial yet oft cited set of principles commonly referred to as the "Principles of War" present a comprehensive summary of the tactics and strategies that can be used during war. These principles have proved to be highly effective over the years, and are adopted by nations worldwide, owing to fact that they encompass all the moral as well as psychological aspects of warfare (Clausewitz, Graham, 2008). This paper on Principles of War: Battle of Waterloo discusses and analyzes the nine principles of war with regard to and as applied in the Battle of Waterloo. The Battle of Waterloo: Brief Overview The Battle of Waterloo was fought between the Imperial French army commanded by Emperor Napoleon and the Seventh Coalition - which comprised of an Anglo-allied army commanded by the Duke of Wellington; and the Prussian army commanded by Gebhard von Blucher. It was fought on June 18, 1815 near Waterloo which is in present-day Belgium. Napoleon’s army was defeated by the combined forces i.e. the Seventh Coalition and the Anglo-Allied army, and is considered to be historical since it marked the end of Napoleon’s tyrant rule, and his hundred days of return from exile (BBC History, 2011). The battle was historical since the mighty French emperor and military leader Napoleon’s rule came to an abrupt end after his defeat at the hands of the combined armies led by the British, German, Belgian, Dutch and the Prussians. The principles of war discussed in the following section, aims to discuss, examine, and analyze the various strategies used by the combined forces against Napoleon’s army, that eventually led to his fall. The nine principles of war: 1. The Principle of Objective: “No one starts a war—or rather, no one in his senses ought to do so—without first being clear in his mind what he intends to achieve by that war and how he intends to conduct it”. Karl Von Clausewitz (in Mahnken & Maiolo, 2008, pp. 2) The principle of objective refers to the fundamental purpose of the war / military operation, which must be clearly identified, defined and attained in an effective manner. The two parties involved in the battle included Napoleon’s army on one hand, and the allied forces comprising of the British, the Belgians, the Germans, and the Prussians on the other. The basic objective of Napoleon was to continue his accession and dominance, and restore his power after his exile, in the year 1815 and to defeat the allied European forces which had begun to reassemble their armies in a bid to overthrow Napoleon’s rule. Napoleon’s objective was to destroy the efforts of the allied forces, prevent them from gaining more support and expanding their existing coalition, and destroy the British, Prussian, Dutch, and Belgian armies before they could gather more support and assistance from other powers. On the other hand, the basic objective of the allied forces was to stop the emperor’s (Napoleon’s) accession, and overthrow him and thus bring a halt to his reign by defeating him and to end his tyrant rule as the emperor of France. 2. The principle of Offensive: This principle entails the retention, seizing of and exploiting the initiatives of the enemy by launching an offensive action through an appropriate and effectively defined common objective. This entails the execution of a plan of action which involves engaging the armed forces and their assets, and aligning their supply and communication networks in such a manner that helps them in attaining their desired objectives efficiently and effortlessly. In order to execute his plan, Emperor Napoleon gathered his army and proceeded towards Belgium after crossing the river Sambre, on June 15, 1815. His intention was to destroy the coalition existing at the south of Brussels. He intended to drive the British army back to the sea and then subsequently defeat the Prussian army (Fremont-Barnes, 2002). Figure 1: Positions of the armies of the allied forces prior to the battle Source: http://www.napoleonguide.com/maps_waterbat.htm The coalition army had positioned themselves at various key locations, to ward off the threat from Napoleon’s forces. Wellington who had positioned his forces along the south of Brussels, was supposed to hold the fort and fight off the French army until they could receive backup support from the Prussians. Figure 2: The Waterloo Campaign Source: http://www.britishbattles.com/waterloo/waterloo-june-1815.htm 3. Principle of Mass: This principle is concerned with collecting and focusing all the effects of combat power at a specific time and place with a view to achieve the desired goals. This principle entails the synchronization of all the key elements of combat and concentrates them at a place/ location within a short period of time to achieve mass. Such massing, as opposed to mere heavy concentration of armed forces, helps in gaining a numerical advantage over the enemy forces, and in successfully defending oneself from enemy attacks. Napoleon was aware of the combined forces and strength of the coalition forces, and knew that he could easily be outnumbered by them. So he divided his army into two wings - the Right wing led by Marshal Grouchy and the Left wing led by Marshal Ney, and commanded them to move into two different directions and gathered his own reserved army to proceed towards Wellington (Parkinson, 1977, pp.99). The allied forces on the other hand, comprising of the Duke of Wellington, the Prussian army, and Prince Blucher assembled their troops in Belgium near the French Border. To the east, the Austrian army was gathered and positioned to defend attacks from Napoleon's troops. Wellington proposed to deal with the advancing Napoleon's army by directing all his military might and positioning to the southwest of Brussels through Mons; the Dutch-Belgian troops had positioned their army around Quatre-Bras; and the Prussian Army was positioned at Ligny (BBC History, 2011). 4. Principle of Economy of Force: This principle entails the use of minimum of force for the successful attainment of mass at the decisive point and time on the battlefield. It helps in employing the combat forces judiciously through effective distribution of power. It is of utmost significance in a battle, to ensure that all the parts/segments of one’s' armed forces act to their optimum strength and no part must be left without a purpose. This requires planning to ensure effective and effortless co-ordination of the armed forces, and engaging the combatants to handle critical points during war, while the head of the army is involved in other tactics such as deception, defense, delay or other such operations. Figure 3: The Battle of Quatre Bras Source: Wikipedia.org Napoleon was fully aware of the combined strength of the seventh coalition and knew that if the attacks must be carried out promptly before they grew in strength and outnumbered them. He thus, divided his troops into two wings and sent them into different directions while he along with his reserved army, marched rapidly towards the southwest of Brussels where Wellington’s army was deployed. On June 16, 1815 Napoleon launched an attack on Wellington's army, led by Marshal Ney, who was commanded to hold position on the Quatre Bras region, until he could strengthen his forces, and subsequently sent another of his wing towards the Prussian army of Blucher. Wellington’s Anglo-Dutch forces were positioned on the road to Brussels, the Germans were positioned at La Haye Sante which was used as their headquarters while the Prussian army was positioned at Papelotte, as seen in the figure below: Figure 4: Positions of the Coalition army and the accession routes of the French army Source: http://www.britishbattles.com/waterloo/waterloo-june-1815.htm 5. Principle of Maneuver: This principle entails the use and application of a strategy which puts the enemy in a position of grave disadvantage, due to the sheer use of combat power. Effective maneuvering at the time of war, helps in keeping the enemy under suspense and in catching them off-guard thus destroying their chance of planning against ones' moves and denying them the opportunity to successfully achieve their goals. The principle of maneuver requires the constant use of strategies and policies which help in creating more and more troubles and obstacles in the path of the enemy, in order to thwart their attempts at planning and the same is achieved through systematic thinking, operating and organizing as well as by displaying agility. Figure 4: Maneuver of the French forces Source: http://www.britishbattles.com/waterloo/waterloo-june-1815.htm The key goal of the French army was to advance towards La Haye Sante and capture it since it held a key strategic position on the way to Wellington's position, and towards to the east was another central location i.e. Papelotte, which was backed by the Prussian army. In a bid to separate the combined forces of Wellington and Blucher's troops Napoleon sent his troops in two directions (as shown in figure 2). However the French army was met by the troops led by Prince of Orange who had positioned his troops in the area and hence were able to successfully ward off the attacks from the French army until reinforcements were received. The Dutch-Belgian troops commanded by the Prince of Orange, were able to hold their ground, which resulted in a stalemate on June 16th, 1815 (BBC History, 2011). On the other hand, the Prussian army at Ligny, were attacked by another wing of the French troops and were required to be reinforced, and commit more and more troops as the casualties mounted. Ultimately, the French army was victorious in the Battle at Ligny although the Prussian army could not be completely destroyed. 6. Principle of Unity of Command: The principle of Unity of Command refers to the use of all the forces acting under ones' leadership. It also includes unity of effort across all levels and stages of war, as well as the use of military might to mass combat with a view to achieve the desired objective / goal. In order to win a battle, the efforts of all the troops must be coordinated and unified. The basic underlying objective of this principle is to guide and lead the troops under one responsible commander. The battle of waterloo involved three major armies i.e. the Anglo-Dutch army led by Wellington, the Prussian army led by Blucher and the French army led by Napoleon. Wellington commanded his troops at the critical Quatre Bras cross-roads and was successful in defending his ground against the heavy cavalry attack by the French troops, despite having a serious shortage of artillery. Napolean had commanded Marshall Ney to occupy the Quatre Bras cross-roads however due to reasons unknown, he failed to follow the orders resulting in stalemate. The Prussian army on the other hand which was required to provide back up support at Papelotte was in the line of fire, according to a plan developed by Napoleon. He planned to attack the Prussian army which had formed up alongside Ligny. The original plan was to let Marshall Ney attack and occupy the Quatre Bras cross-roads and then proceed towards Ligny and attack the Prussian army from the rear end, while Napoleon would attack them from the front, thus covering them from either side. This plan however failed to materialize due to failure on the part of Marshall Ney to occupy Quatre Bras (BritishBattles.com, 2011). This incidence highlights the significance of unity in command, since the consequences were devastating leading to the downfall of the powerful ruler Napoleon Bonaparte and ending his reign abruptly. 7. Principle of Surprise: This principle entails the use of element of surprise in such a way that the enemy is taken completely unaware, and is struck in a manner, time or place whereby they are least prepared. The successful achievement of this principle would help in reducing one's vulnerability and helps in gaining an added advantage over the enemy forces. Surprise could be in various forms i.e. in terms of direction of attack, the location of attack, or the time of attack. It could be achieved through systematic planning, deception, speed, or the use of unexpected number of troops (to gain a sense of power and intimidate the enemy); use of unexpected combat weapons and tactics etc. On June 15th when Napoleon's army was hardly 30 miles away from the South of Brussels, where Wellington's army was positioned, Blucher and Wellington were taken completely by surprise. The army advanced rapidly towards Brussels and Wellington failed to judge the approximate date and time of his arrival, thus taking him completely by surprise. On June 18th, 1815 despite the command of Napoleon, Marshall Ney failed to capture Quatre Bras cross-roads. He failed to react quickly to the instructions thus leading to a loss of time. By this time, Wellington had received substantial support from the troops sent by the Prussian army through Brussels area. Although Ney, launched furious attacks on Wellington's forces which even led to heavy causalities, the additional troops sent by the Prussian army for support, which arrived from the Brussels area, took Ney by surprise, since he was clearly outnumbered by the British forces, which were beyond his expectation and hence was forced to retreat. 8. Principle of Security: This principle requires putting into practice such strategies that help the defenders against any surprise attack by the enemy. It ensures that the enemy must not gain any unexpected advantage and in turn must be caught unaware. Security can be achieved by protecting one's forces against enemy attack. This can be done through provision of appropriate levels of freedom to enable them to act freely in situations of crises, taking steps to reduce vulnerability against enemy forces, acquisition of intelligence and understanding of the enemy's plans and strategies. In order to succeed in a war, it is essential to protect and safeguard one's armed forces and minimize risks. In order to provide security to the troops Wellington, requested support in the form of additional combat forces from the Prussian army. The plan was successful since Wellington with the help and support from the backup forces was able to defend Quatre Bras against the massive attacks launched by the French army. On the other hand, the French army led by Napoleon failed to receive such security to its forces leading to heavy causalities and ultimately defeat at the hands of the coalition forces. Napoleon’s original plan was to launch divisionary attacks on the coalition forces led by Wellington and Blucher, who were defending two key points at Quatre Bras cross-roads and Ligny which fell in Napoleon’s way towards Brussels. 9. Principle of Simplicity: This principle requires the use of simple, precise and uncomplicated directions which can be easily followed and interpreted. It is one of the most crucial factors of all military communications. The use of this element as a strategy during war helps in better understanding of the intentions and goals of the commander and leads to greater support to the leader by the troops, hence ultimately resulting in successful accomplishment of the mission on hand. The simple instructions given by the leader/commander helps in minimizing the possibility of confusion and misunderstandings, which might lead to failure to achieve the desired goal. The reason why Napoleon’s French army was defeated at the hands of the coalition army was because of lack of simplicity in the messages and failure to communicate effectively. Wellington on the other hand, used simple yet effective tactics which helped them in successfully defending their position at the critical Quatre Bras region. The region was surrounded by hills, and Wellington placed his troops on the hills and fought the battle from high up there, and refused to move his troops to the ground which forced the French army to battle them uphill and travel through mud. Throughout the battle, Napoleon’s side was faced with several confusions with regard to the delivery of messages, and communication and understanding in general. Such a failure on the part of the French army, and the complicated maneuvers made matters worse and tipped the battles in favor of the coalition army. The nine principles discussed above thus, provide a fair and comprehensive perspective about the manner in which battles are fought and the strategies and tactics that are applied to achieve the desired objective. These principles although differ from country to country, form the basic rules which help in gaining a strategic advantage over the enemy, on the battlefield. References: BBC History (2011). The Battle of Waterloo [Online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/battle_waterloo_01.shtml [Accessed: November 1, 2011] BritishBattles.com (2011). The Battle of Waterloo [Online] Available at: http://www.britishbattles.com/waterloo/quatre-bras.htm [Accessed: November 1, 2011] Clausewitz, C. V., Graham, J. J., (2008). On War, Penguin Classics Publication Fremont-Barnes, G., (2002). The Napoleonic wars: The fall of the French Empire, 1813-1815, Osprey Publishing, Pp.14-18 Mahnken, T. G., Maiolo, J. A., (2008). Strategic studies: A reader. Routledge Publication, pp. 2 Parkinson, R., (1977). The encyclopedia of modern war, Taylor & Francis Publication, pp.99 - 100 Read More