Battle of Leipzig - Research Paper Example

?Battle of Leipzig Battle of Leipzig Introduction The 1813 Battle of Leipzig, which is also known as the Battle of Nations, marks the high point of the German ‘War of Liberation’. It also marks a time of cooperation and coordinated efforts among the various European nations against Napoleon Bonaparte1. It was the largest armed conflict in history during that time, a conflict which eventually led to the downfall of Napoleon. It highlights a significant point in Napoleon’s plans to take over Europe, a plan which would was later prevented by the united efforts of the European nations. This paper shall now discuss and analyze the Battle of Leipzig based on the nine principles of war which include unity of command, surprise, security, simplicity, objective, offensive, mass, economy of force, and maneuver. These principles shall be used to establish their manner of application in the battle, including the consequences of these applications. Body When the Russian army as well as the harsh winter caused Napoleon’s defeat in 1812, the Europeans felt that peace would soon be seen in their lands after almost a decade of persistent warfare2. However, Napoleon was persistent in his efforts at warfare. When Napoleon returned to France from Russia, he quickly rebuilt and strengthened his army, even recruiting teenagers and young men. Veterans filled in and strengthened the military ranks. In the early months of 1813, he advanced towards Germany, planning to vanquish each military unit in the region, and recruit the survivors3. On the other hand, Europe’s leaders were wary about entering alliances with each other because they considered each other to be either current or future enemies. Karl von Metternich, the foreign minister of Austria believed that he would not be able to successfully fend off France and its military strength. He then started to call for a coalition of nations against Napoleon. Finally, Prussia, Russia, Sweden, Great Britain, and other smaller European nations agreed to form an alliance with Austria to fight their common enemy. Napoleon discounted such alliance and surged on towards Germany4. He was able to win some of the initial skirmishes; however, he later realized that his new army and troops were not as experienced as the ones which fought in the battle in Russia. When he found out that troops were advancing on him from all directions, he negotiated a truce on the 4th of June, 1813, meeting with Metternich in order to establish a cordial agreement on the dispute. However, even with the favorable options given to him, Napoleon refused to accept the terms of the truce5. While negotiations were taking place, reinforcements were added for both sides; in August, the truce ended and war commenced yet again. The Allied forces persisted in driving Napoleon out of their territories; and Napoleon’s forces steadily grew exhausted6. Another offensive by the Allied forces was launched in September, with France winning several small skirmishes, but the French were driven back to Leipzig by October. Napoleon had about 170,000 troops covering the town, but the Allied forces outnumbered them. On October 13, 1813, Napoleon later left a portion of his army in the north to battle the Prussians and to attempt to break Russian and Austrian forces in the south. By nightfall, no major gains by any of the combatants were gained7. The armed conflict raged on for days and Napoleon could not cope with the larger Allied troops; and the odds against him was exacerbated when the Swedish Army joined the Allied forces. Napoleon tried to negotiate another truce, but was rebuffed by the Allied forces. Napoleon and his troops started to withdraw westward by crossing the Elster Bridge through a stone bridge. This stone bridge soon proved to be the downfall of many of Napoleon’s troops as many of them died while crossing and defending the bridge8. Napoleon retreated as a defeated general to Paris, leaving behind about 60,000 troops dead, wounded, or captured by the Allied forces. It did not help matters that the areas he once conquered – Netherlands and Bavaria soon joined the Allied forces advancing into France9. This forced Napoleon to exile into Elba. He later returned, but was defeated by the Allies in Waterloo in 1815. This battle marked the beginning of the end for Napoleon, and his efforts in the Battle of Waterloo would not have led to his defeat if his power was not already compromised in the Battle of Leipzig. Diagram showing relative locations and direction of combat Figure 1 Map of the Battle of Leipzig Principle of objective This principle basically refers to purpose. For the most part, one of the main objectives of any war is the destruction of the opposing forces10. The different military operations launched are meant to meet such a purpose. During peacetime, the goal of military operations is to maintain the readiness and the capability of the Army to respond defensively and offensively, and to protect the citizens and the territorial integrity of the country11. Thos who plan wars and other military offensives seek to establish missions and operations which are meant to accomplish the safety and security of their nation. The Battle of Leipzig had a variety of purposes for either opposing parties. For the French army and for Napoleon Bonaparte, his objective was to expand his empire and his power over Europe. The city of Leipzig is considered one of the most successful commercial spots in Germany and it lies in a Great Plain which traverses Elbe to the Harz Mountains to Thuringa, and Bohemia12. Its location and situation has also made it a main venue for various battles. After Napoleon went on a defensive following the Russian campaign in 1812, he was also forced to fight a decisive battle in the Napoleonic Wars – a battle which included five armies and about half a million men13. Napoleon wanted to fight and destroy each army which came against him to feed his goals of expansion and conquest. Some of his efforts have failed. He was forced to give up Dresden in defeat and the advancing Allied troops slowly caused him to retreat to France. Communication lines led through Leipzig and in falling back into France, Napoleon was forced to give up on Germany, allowing his German allies to abandon their coalition14. His only chance to gain any sort of success was to battle it out until he would cross the river at Leipzig. As was narrated above, his purpose and his goals were eventually defeated by a stronger and a more determined Allied force. The Allied forces, on the other hand, were adamant in pushing off Bonaparte back to France. Bonaparte conquered many parts of Europe and the Allied forces finally decided to form a coalition in the hopes of reclaiming their territories and of preventing Napoleon from advancing further into their lands15. The Allied forces also aimed to recruit as many soldiers and as many European nations as they could in order to battle the French troops. Napoleon also wanted to crush the Army of Bohemia before the Allied troops could gain more power and more recruits16. Napoleon and his army however, proved unsuccessful in its advance and in meeting its objectives because the Allied troops proved to be the more superior and the more determined force. Offensive The principle of offensive refers to offensive action – that of moving forward and fighting enemies and their allies, and also launching actions against their lines of supply and communication17. It is used as a means of achieving one’s objectives. These operations are also the means to gain initiative while protecting freedom of action and establishing decisive goals. In applying this principle, both sides at some point went into an offensive in order to achieve their goals and objectives. Napoleon planned his offensive between Pleisse and the Parthe rivers, planting infantry, sappers, and some guns to defend the bridges in these rivers. Since he controlled the bridges, he also found it easier to shift troops and supplies from one area to another18. The primary position of France was the south of Leipzig in the midst of Wachau and Liebertwolwitz villages. Another position was at the north of Leipzig, between Mockern and Wiederitzsch. Artillery and baggages were placed near Leipzig, with Old and the Young Guards, as well as the reserve cavalry kept in reserve19. Allied offensive plans called for an attack on the bridge between Leipzig and Lindenau, and another on the Pleisse River. However, this offensive was not favored by the other Allied forces, especially with the Russian troops wanting to man the right of the Pleisse River20. The Russian plan succeeded in stopping the French offensive, and Austria’s own plans fell through. Various offensive attacks were also carried out as mentioned in the summary of the Leipzig Battle, and these offensives have targeted strategic areas for both troops21. As a result, success was gained by either party depending on the application of each offensive. Failures were experienced by Napoleon’s troops because the Allied troops had the advantage of number which allowed them to surround the French troops and block their escape routes. In effect, the Allied troops were able to achieve the objectives they established through the offensive they launched. Mass The mass principle refers to the act of organizing the necessary requisites of military power within reach and disposal and, achieving a definite impact on the enemy at the quickest time possible22. Massing is all about attacking the enemy with a decisive power, and with the intent of incapacitating him completely. This principle allows troops with a numerical disadvantage to gain positive results; it also controls the exposure of the smaller force to enemy fire23. There were various points in the Battle of Leipzig where the principle of mass was seen. In the Allied offensive in the north, their instructions were to go towards Leipzig and attack the enemy wherever they may be found. The troops headed to the north were strong with 20,000 to 30,000 infantry, 8,000 to 10,000 cavalry, 2,500 Cossacks and 270-310 guns24. Their advance was met by a less superior French army. Langeron, on the Allied side led the attack on two villages which were controlled by the French, but disregarding the advantage of the Allied troops, the French troops marched out of the two villages and went on to attack some of Langeron’s units25. Overwhelmed, Langeron actually thought that he was being attacked by Napoleon himself. In Langeron’s confusion he ordered fire on what turned out to be Prussian troops. Langeron also attacked the village Wiederitzsch with the Poles fighting them at every advance. The Pole regiment was outnumbered and was eventually pushed out of the village26. In effect, the application of this principle is based on the power of the troops to advance on their offensive, and to solder on with the full force of their troops and their arsenal, in the hope of eventually routing the enemy troops. Although the Allied efforts were at times very shaky, it was able to achieve this principle from sheer numbers alone. Napoleon was able to gain small victories by applying this principle, however, these victories were not successful in gaining him success in this battle. Figure 2 Allied offensive in the north Economy of Force Another principle in this case is the economy of force. This principle basically claims that there are times when less is more27. In order to gain mass at the best point in time on the battlefield, there is a need to effectively allocate force. Economy of force refers to the principle which assists in the efficient distribution of force. In this case, there is a need to coordinate and employ soldiers utilizing all the necessary combat power even while one is involved in other activities of warfare28. In the case of the Battle of Leipzig, Napoleon was the most effective in the application of this strategy. He was a brilliant military tactician and gained much success in his military conquests because of these qualities. In the Battle of Leipzig, he was able to use the economy of force principle because in some of the battles he occupied a central position. In such position, he was able to maximize the use of a limited number of troops to launch attacks while still having the entire garrison of troops readily available to provide support29. He also gathered his troops to surround the city. In the process, he was able to fight a defensive battle against invading troops who were forced to cover rough terrain and to pass through alternate routes to reach the city30. In the process, while the enemy troops had to expend a lot of effort to launch its attack, the French troops were already positioned around the city, waiting for enemy troops to attack. This is a principle which manifests the use of a lesser degree of force in seeking and gaining advances on one’s objectives and goals in warfare. Figure 3 18th of October: Napoleon surrounded Maneuver Warfare is difficult to win because of its unpredictability and because of its combative nature. Effective maneuvering therefore involves the ability to keep one’s enemy off balance and protecting one’s troops31. Maneuver is therefore necessary to utilize successes, to value the freedom of action, and to reduce one’s vulnerability. Maneuvering is about creating new problems for one’s enemies to face, opposing and vanquishing their plans, and eventually causing their defeat. In the Battle of Leipzig, a significant amount of maneuvering was applied by Napoleon’s and the Allied forces. In the Austrian advance towards Connewitz, the troops were blocked by French troops and they could not use their artillery to support their advance32. As an alternative, they maneuvered an attack nearby Dolitz, dislodging Polish troops and taking over the area. The French troops were not to be deterred and launched their own counter-attack against the Austrians. After making the necessary adjustments in their frontlines, the Austrians brought in their heavy artillery to drive out the Poles33. In the Markkleeberg incident, the Prussian General Kleist used the Pleisse River to attack two of the French Marshalls. Quick to make the necessary maneuvers, the French launched their counter attack and drove the Austrians out of the town. The rest of the Allied troops, including Russia could however easily manipulate their significant number to force the Poles out of Markkleeberg34. But the French Marshalls were ready for them, directing attacks against the Russians. The Allied troops were still bent on taking back Markkleeberg and with grenadiers and more artillery were successful in maneuvering and driving the French and the Poles out of the town35. The maneuvering which was seen here is manifested in the adjustments made by either party after being faced by each attack. In effect, both sides were able to learn from each failure of successful advance or every retreat and to make maneuvers in order to gain the success in the future advancements and military action. Figure 4 Battle of Markkleeberg Unity of command Unity of command refers to the fact that all forces at different levels of war are acting under one responsible leader36. Unity of command refers to combined and coordinated military forces geared towards meeting common goals. In most cases, the most successful wars have been supported by a united command. In the Battle of Leipzig, this was seen in both sides, although the most solid unity of command was seen in Napoleon and his united command of the French, Italian, Polish, and German troops37. This coalition was based on the Confederation of Rhine and largely supported by Napoleon and his authoritarian control of these troops and these regions. Napoleon was a strong and confident leader who was able to exercise a significant amount of power over the troops he was controlling – drawing them into his objectives of conquest and expansion over Europe. The unity of command was also seen in the coalition of the Allied forces which primarily included Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Sweden38. The heads of the different forces in this alliance shared the common goal or objective – that of driving Napoleon out of their territories and to finally cease his expansion activities. It was however more difficult to achieve a single united command in the Alliance as some of them were not willing to concede any of the other leaders to occupy central leadership39. Moreover, these leaders all had different ideas about how the attacks should be carried out. Eventually however, as the battle progressed, the Alliance learned to work with each other, supporting each other and reinforcing each other’s lines during crucial times in battle. As a result, instances where the French troops would have routed the Alliance troops were successfully prevented and managed. Security Security is seen when measures are taken in order to protect one’s troops40. Efficient security supports freedom of action by eliminating vulnerability to enemy. In the Battle of Leipzig, security was not adequately established, especially for Napoleon’s troops. When the Austrian troops captured Dolitz, strong artillery rounds from the Austrians led to the death of Polish troops who were not sufficiently supported by Napoleon’s army41. Casualties for both combating sides were seen, but the losses have been more significant to the French troops who could not replace their lost and dying troops. On the other side, the Allied troops were able to bring in reinforcements for their fallen troops, thereby strengthening their lines and strongly pushing the French out of Leipzig42. In the heat of the Battle of Leipzig, the French received only about 14,000 troops for reinforcements; the coalition on the other hand was able to reinforce its lines and provide security for its troops with the arrival of about 145,000 Russian and Swedish troops43. Security was also not sufficiently provided for the French Coalition especially as they were retreating across the river Elster. While some French troops stayed to protect the retreating forces, an ill-informed corporal who was given the responsibility of blowing the bridge at a predetermined time blew the bridge too soon44. As a result, thousands of French retreating forces were killed and others were stranded and later captured by the Allied forces. The Polish leader also drowned while crossing the river. Inadequate security and support led to the death of these troops, and on the side of the Allied forces, sufficient numbers to secure the lines helped them gain much success in the battle. Figure 5 Allies pursuit after the battle of Leipzig. Surprise Surprise is a principle of war which basically refers to the ability to use unexpected moves and actions which eventually help in gaining the advantage in the battle45. With the current advances in technology, surprising enemy forces have not been as easy to accomplish. In surprising the enemy, it is possible to achieve success which is not in proportion to the effort utilized. It can be seen in terms of direction or timing of the battle and the military actions. The element of surprise was especially apparent in the Battle of Leipzig, on the attack on Wachau when the advancing Russian forces seeking to attack Wachau were not aware that French forces were waiting for them46. They were taken by surprise and were vanquished by the French troops. As the Prussians also entered Wachau, they were surprised by French artillery rounds. As a result of this surprise attack and show of strength, Wachau was successfully taken back by the French troops. In the counter-attacks for both sides, the element of surprise was reduced; however, the French troops were eventually overwhelmed by the show of united strength from the Alliance47. This show of power was further strengthened by the continued gains which the Alliance was able to make with its strong and continually reinforced military. Simplicity Simplicity is the final principle of war. Based on simplicity, there is a belief that plans would be better accomplished if they are planned and implemented in simple ways48. Not making complicated plans and couching orders in the simplest ways possible can help ensure the success of any military offensive or defensive. In the Battle of Leipzig, the application of simplicity was not clearly apparent because Napoleon had his military plans and offensives which were based on effective military tactics which he had been applying in most of his battles49. For the most part, his tactics have been successful. In relation to the Allied troops, their plans were often too simplistic enough and were not sufficient to fight Napoleon and his troops. However, as the battle progressed, the planning transcended more advanced warfare plans which were simply supported by the immediate reinforcement of downed lines50. This simple strategy was able to drive Napoleon and his troops out of Leipzig. Conclusion The discussion above establishes the details of the Battle of Leipzig as evaluated based on the nine principles of war. The Battle of Leipzig is one of the most significant wars fought during Napoleon’s time. It actually spelled the beginning of the end for Napoleon and his empire. The principle of objective requires the indication of purpose or goal for warfare. In the case of Napoleon, his goal was to expand his empire and to increase his foothold on Germany and the rest of Europe. For the Allied troops, their objective was to drive Napoleon out of Leipzig and to stop him from expanding his empire. In terms of offensive, with a significant number of Allied troops involved, Napoleon was forced to be on an offensive for most times during this battle. He was able to regain control in some areas, but persistent Allied troops eventually forced him out of these areas. In terms of mass, the Allied troops were able to amass a significant number of troops to fight the French troops. These allied troops were not significantly united in terms of command, but they were able to eventually work with each other towards a common goal. However, undoubtedly, despite Allied troops winning the battle, the French’s unity in command was more apparent through Napoleon’s leadership. Nevertheless, security was more adequately provided to the Allied troops with strong and immediate reinforcements; whereas, the French troops suffered through low reinforcements. Surprise was seen in the surprise attacks on Austrian forces in the Battle of Wachau, but taken together with other successful French campaigns were still insufficient in negating the success of the Allied against the Napoleon’s troops. Bibliography Army ROTC, ‘Introduction to the Principles of War and Operations,’ 2010, University of Cincinnati, 12 November 2011, , p. 174 Deane, M. ‘Genius at Leipzig? 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