From Mobilization to Revolution - Essay Example

From Mobilization to Revolution I. Introduction It was during the 19th century that nationalism became widespread, manifested as movements toward national unification and independence. It took hold in Europe, especially Germany, during the Napoleonic Wars as resistance to French occupation. However, German nationalism during this period was conservative and restricted by tradition, rather than liberal and universal. The latter part of the 19th century witnessed strong nationalist movements among countries under the rule of the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires, as well as, Ireland under the British and Poland under Russia. However, nationalism became increasingly identified with conservative elements and clashed with new ideologies such as socialism. Nationalist sentiments among nation-states turned to the acquisition of territory and prestige which led them to imperial adventurism. Nationalism had much to do with the outbreak of World War I. The defeat of the Axis powers after the Great War also saw the break-up of the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires. Many of their former territories became independent nations through treaties after the war, and the Paris Peace Conference firmly placed the principle of national self-determination and equality among nations (Columbia Encyclopedia). A. Germany Napoleon was the dominating force in Europe by the end of the 18th century. The French emperor created the Confederation of the Rhine which grouped the individual German states bringing them together for the first time. This conglomeration of formerly separate states brought about a rise in nationalism which started in the northern states. After Napoleon’s defeat at the Battle of Leipzig by Russia, Prussia, Britain and Austria, this Confederation also collapsed. Napoleon’s defeat brought about the beginning of the Congress of Vienna which was formed to restore the balance of power in Europe and ensure that France would be unable to once again expand beyond its pre-war boundaries. The countries who participated in Leipzig were the principal players in the Congress of Vienna. Lands which formerly formed part of the French Empire were partitioned among the victorious powers. Prussia traded the Grand Duchy of Warsaw for Saxony with Russia. The other powers became anxious with the growing power of Prussia, and so it agreed to take only two-fifths of Saxony to prevent the formation of a coalition against it by the other powers. The Coalition then created the German Confederation which was similar to the Confederation of the Rhine, under the leadership of Austria. The four major powers of Russia, Prussia, Austria and Britain then became the first European Council and they would meet to discuss the keeping of peace in Europe. The Austrian prince Metternich established a co0nservative and reactionary system which effectively undermined the liberalism introduced during the age of Napoleon. Nationalistic tendencies which harked from the Confederation of the Rhine were squelched. However, liberalism began to resurface after several years of oppression from the Metternich administration. Uprisings were begun by liberals and peasants in the German states seeking reforms. The individual princes of the German states were caught unprepared by these radical movements and were forced to grant parliaments and constitutions, eliminating feudal structures and appointing liberal ministries. The liberal revolutionaries created the National Assembly which intended to unify the whole of Germany as a liberal and constitutional state. After disagreeing with Austria, Prussia tried to unify Germany under the klienduetsch plan which involved the unification of all German states with the exclusion of Austria and under Prussian leadership. The Assembly finalized the constitution in 1848 with King Frederick William appointed as Germany’s first emperor. However, the National Assembly did not wield enough power to see its plans through and eventually Frederick cancelled the constitution and invoked his divine right to rule Germany. The monarchy quickly crushed the liberal movement. The Industrial revolution saw the rapid development of Germany during 1850 to 1870. Along with the construction of new factories, railroads, iron and textile production, came a marked increase in population spurring the expansion of the middle class. With economic development, the whole of Germany became economically united and later culturally united under Prussia’s leadership. The German states became linked by telegraph and railroad. The Austrians having been excluded, were being considered more and more as outsiders by the rest of the German people. Otto von Bismarck became Prussian Chancellor in 1862. His goal was to unite Germany under Prussian rule and to quell liberal movements. To consolidate popular support among the German states, Bismarck formulated a plan that would provoke other powers to attack Prussia. He formulated a plan that threatened the autocracy of Schleswig and Holstein, the two northernmost German states. This threat to Schleswig and Holstein provoked reaction from Denmark which gave Bismarck with the aid of Austria, the opportunity to go to war with the former. Bismarck’s large and powerful military quickly defeated the Danish armies. Though victorious, the liberals continued to oppose Bismarck. Prussia acquired Schleswig while Austria gained Holstein. He then contrived to invade Holstein hoping to provoke Austria to go to war against Prussia, while also making sure that the former was diplomatically isolated and would not be able to acquire aid from the other European powers. War broke out between Prussia and Austria with the German states siding with the latter believing that Austria protected their interests. However, the powerful Prussian army quickly defeated Austria. Prussian victory allowed Bismarck to enter into a fair treaty with Austria and the south German States. However, the Treaty of Prague also allowed Prussia to acquire all of the northern German states, effectively forming a new and more powerful state, the North German Confederation. To ensure that Austria harbored no ill-feelings, Bismarck also awarded it the Hungarian throne making it a dual monarchy. Thus, he manipulated information and trapped France into entering the Franco-Prussian War. The final step to unification was to go to war with France. French claims to the Spanish crown was contested by Bismarck who nominated a Hohenzollern to it. He also showed the south German states that rance was claiming land in exchange for their neutrality in the Austro-Prussian War. The Franco-Prussian War effectively brought the sympathy and active military support of all the German states to Prussia’s side. France’s defeat effectively unified the whole of Germany and a national parliament, the Reichstag, was elected by the people. This was checked by the Bundesrat, composed of princes, which served as the federal council. The unification startled Europe and the Russians especially became hostile for fear of being cut off from the rest of the Continent. It was commonly seen that German unification threatened European balance of power. B. Italy The year 1871 saw the rise of two new nations, the German Empire and the Kingdom of Italy. Italy’s reunification was simultaneous with that of Germany and were initiated by the same historical factors, mainly brought about by the Napoleonic dominance in Europe. It was also nationalism and liberal ideas which led to Italian unification. Like Germany, Italy was also divided into several states prior to the French Revolution and Napoleon’s continental conquest. Napoleon’s fame began during his Italian campaign in 1796 and the Italians saw him As a liberator who taught them liberalism and nationalism. Napoleon, aside from introducing reforms, also created a united Kingdom of Italy. However, as Napoleon’s dictatorship became more evident, he was increasingly opposed and later rebelled against by the Italians. Italy was strongly influenced by Austria after 1815. Under Metternich, Austria had no wish to see the country’s unification. However, a succession of uprisings began from 1815. By 1848, revolts erupted in all the Italian states in the name of liberty and unity. The Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia also declared war against Austria. However, the revolts including Piedmont were defeated although the latter gained prestige for her valiant fight against Austria and her promulgation of a constitution in 1848. Cavour became Piedmont’s Prime Minister in1852. He advocated a constitutional monarchy and sought the support of liberals from other Italian states. He began to modernize Piedmont’s economy and government and expanded its diplomatic relations. Compared to Bismarck, Cavour relied more on diplomacy rather than war to gain unification. Cavour allied his government with France and Britain during the Crimean War. He also secured French military assistance from Napoleon III to drive Austria out of Italy. The resulting Austro-Piedmontese War, partial Italian unification was achieved. Italian unification was completed as Cavour took advantage of the uprisings of the central Italian Duchies and the expeditions of Garibaldi. By the time of Cavour’s death in 1861, only Venetia and Rome remained outside Kingdom of Italy. Italian unification became complete as a result of Austrian defeat at the hands of Prussia. Italy allied itself with Prussia and seized Venetia. When the French garrisons returned home to fight Prussia, Italy marched into Rome despite the pope’s opposition. The acquisition of the two states finally made Italian unification complete. C. Turkey After World War I, the Allies occupied and partitioned Anatolia for occupation. Mustafa Kemal rallied the Anatolian Turks to ask as an armed resistance force. The Turkish War of Independence was fought in 1919 and Kemal’s forces were successful in driving the enemy out of Anatolia. After four years of fighting, Kemal signed the Treaty of Lausanne with the Allies on July 23, 1923. Turkey gained international recognition as an independent nation on October 13, 1923 and Ankara was declared as its capital. It was proclaimed a republic by the Turkish Grand Assembly on October 29, 1923 with Kemal who now adopted the name Ataturk, as its first president. Ataturk recognized that military victory was not sufficient to ensure the country’s survival. He laid down the plans to modernize Turkey through major political, economic, cultural and social reforms. It was also Ataturk’s goal to make universal contributions to peace and prosperity. His body of reform theories became known as Kemalism, and it carried six basic principles. The Kemalist revolution was intended to create an independent nation-state with the national resistance spirit serving as its basis. It was through nationalism that Ataturk was able to give his people a national identity. They were able to achieve a unified vision of national objectives and common interests. The Turkish concept of a nation was oneness of spirit moulded by a common history. The Turkish people were able to establish a national affinity with their historical past, harnessing them towards the realization of their hopes and expectations for the future. During the Turkish War of Independence, Kemal Ataturk took the remnants of the Fatherland and Liberty cells and formed them into the Association for the Defense Rights of Anatolia and Rumelia. This association served as the nucleus for the revolution that led to Turkish independence. After independence, Ataturk revived and successfully perpetuated the Tanzimat reforms which were instituted in the previous century. He also initiated new reform measures aimed at modernizing the country. These reforms effectively brought Turkey into the 20th century. Ataturk was successful in his reform measures not only because of his political adeptness and charisma, but because of the solid support and loyalty of the military. The founding of the Republican People’s Party since the military occupied fifteen percent of the seats during the first Grand National Assembly on April 23, 1920. This meant that the military was the largest interest group represented during the assembly. In the next until the seventh assemblies, the military occupied twenty percent of seats in the Turkish Grand Assembly. This spanned a period of thirty years and in most instances, the military was the largest occupational contingent positioned at the top leadership level. These former military officers recognized that Ataturk’s reforms were the answer to the economic, social and political problems being faced by a young Turkish Republic in the 1920s. In this experience, the military and the bureaucracy were both highly politicised and bureaucratised, which was essential for the success of a revolution. A principle of Kemalism was populism, wherein the people elected individuals who would govern the nation. Their duty is to safeguard Turkey’s independence in both the national and international arenas. Turkish laws also guaranteed equal rights among citizens regardless of race, gender or creed. The state gives equal treatment to all Turks. Ataturk also introduced the basic principle of republicanism, applying democratic ideals which are political, intellectual and egalitarian. Ataturk also made a shift from the religious to secular society by using contemporary laws in administering the state. These laws are based on rational thoughts and scientific facts. The Turks were also encouraged to exercise freedom of thought, devoid of any attachments to any form of dogma. In effect, Ataturk was able to make smooth transition from a feudal state, to one of modernity, and eventually a program of westernisation. Although populist and democratic, Ataturk also enjoyed the participation of both government and military bureaucracies, which according to Trimbereger are essential to a successful revolution. References: Giddens, A., Duneier, M. and Appelbaum, R. (2003) Introduction to Sociology, Chapter 17: Religion In Modern Society. 4th Ed., W.W. Norton & Company. http://www.wwnorton.com/giddens4/chapters/chapter17/welcome.htm Hooker, R. (1996) Modernity. Modernity. General Glossary. http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/GLOSSARY/MODERN.HTM Johnson, Maxwell. The Role of the Military in Turkish Politics. Document created: 6 February 01, Air University Review, January-February 1982 Martin, Brian (1984) Uprooting War., Chapter 9: The Military. (London: Freedom Press); this is the revised 1990 version. http://www.uow.edu.au/arts/sts/bmartin/pubs/90uw/uw09.html North, Douglas C. Structure and Change in Economic History. Http://ssr1.uchicago.edu/PRELIMS/Change/chmisc2.html Tilly, Charles (1978) From Mobilization to Revolution. McGRaw-Hill College. Read More