Factors Influencing Breastfeeding Rates - Literature review Example

Asssessment # 2 Factors Influencing Breastfeeding Rates Name Institution Introduction Breastfeeding is the process whereby a mother feeds her baby through the milk from her breasts. According to the World Health Organization (2014) and other bodies alike Queensland Health (2011), breastfeeding guarantees a child’s health and survival. Therefore, it is one of or the most successful technique to ensure better health outcome of infants. The best period to breastfeed, a baby is two years. World Health Organization (2014) argues that, on a global scale, it is estimated that less than 40% of babies six months and others are breastfed on an exclusive basis. According to the argument put forth by Queensland Health (2011), it is recommended that a newborn infant be exclusively breastfed for the first 6 months of their lives and continued until they are 12 months of age with the addition of solid foods to their diet. This research topic is relevant because it tries to cover one of the life essential issues that determine the healthy living of all humans. Various studies have been done regarding the same issue, thus enhancing people to have more understanding of what is expected in life. The paper reviews some past studies done by different authors regarding the same topic. Different articles trying to answer questions like; “What are the common problems/barriers for breastfeeding promotion found in previous studies? What did Australian studies say? “will be reviewed in this literature review. Scope and Method (Literature search) The subject matter being researched has a wealth of information and important in health and medicine. Therefore, there are many works of literature, dedicated websites and books available on this topic. This literature review covers articles from Griffith’s university online library service to access peer-review articles, and other reading material. Some articles and information were also retrieved from databases such as Pubmed, Google Scholar, WHO, and Proquest Central. With the use of key words such as “The Importance of Breast Feeding,” “Determinants and factors of Breast Feeding,” “Breastfeeding initiation rates” and “Breastfeeding cessation rates” were all used in the various search databases. Findings Background: According to the argument put forth by WHO and UNICEF, it is necessary to introduce 6 months of exclusive breastfeeding with continuation for up to 2 years (World Health Organization, 2014). The national health and medical research council guidelines in Australia recommends the same as WHO and UNICEF (Australian Health Minister’s conference, (2010). The same policy exists for the Royal Australian College of General Practioners and the American Academy of Pediatrics (Mortensen and Tawia, 2013). Moreover, Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (2011), argues that, breastfeeding is increasingly gaining importance because majority of mothers are having access to postnatal care where they are guided on how to take care of their babies. Research in first world countries in determining the effects of sustained breastfeeding pattern is limited due to the fact that duration of feeding is quite short and usually does not go beyond 12 months post partum (Mortensen, & Tawia, 2013). According to the UNICEF’S report in 2010, only 18% mothers in the United Kingdom engaged in breastfeeding (Garnham, 2014). This is clear indicator that, mothers in the UK do not understand or else they ignore the importance of breastfeeding as it argued by Queensland Health (2011). Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (2011) states that, in Australia, 96% of mothers initiated breastfeeding in 2010, but with time, the percentage of those who continued with breastfeeding lowered down because by five months, only 15% were breastfeeding. According to UNICEF the early initiation rates in South Africa for breastfeeding was 61% from 2008-2012 with 8% of babies being exclusively fed at the age of 6 months. WHO recommends exclusive breastfeeding to HIV positive mothers for the first 6 months if replacement feeding is cost-effective, sustainable, and safe (World Health Organization, 2014). Baghurst, Pincombe, Peat, Henderson, Reddin and Antoniou (2007) argues that, although breastfeeding is an important public health priority around the world, the rates continue going down. Regardless of the efforts of public health sectors worldwide in emphasizing the importance of breastfeeding, the anticipated rates are unsatisfactory. There are various health benefits for breastfeeding mothers such as weight loss of baby fat, risk reduction of ovarian and pre-menopausal breast cancer, assists in returning the woman’s uterus to its ante-natal state faster, reduction in the risk of obtaining osteoporosis (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2011). As for the infants breast milk is important in developing lower risk of gastro-intestinal diseases, allergies, diabetes, urinary tract infections, obesity, respiratory tract infections, some type of childhood cancers and many more (Queensland Health (2011). As postulated by Coutinho, Lira, Lima, Frias, Eickmann and Ashworth (2014), breast milk is rich in vital nutrients not available in any type of infant milk formula; these components build and strengthen the infant’s immune system. Yeoh, Eastwood, Phung and Woolfenden (2007) found out that, breastfeeding is very effective in the promotion of strong growth and development and improvement of neurocognitive development. Research findings from Casey (2012) suggest that, women who are on permanent long-term pharmacotherapy usually do not breastfeed or have an early cessation rate. Determinants of breastfeeding: Breastfeeding is determined by several factors (Erkkola, Salmenhaara, Kronberg-Kippilä, Ahonen, Arkkola, TUusitalo, Pietinen, Veijola, Knip, Virtanen, 2010). They include; socio-demographic and economic factors, as well as maternal elements and family/social support that influence a woman’s decision in the initiation and termination of breastfeeding her baby (Yeoh et al, 2007). Baghurst, et al. (2007) found out that, majority of women fail to breastfeed their babies according to the recommended manner because of different factors. Some of these factors include; social, economic, demographic, and lifestyle issues associated with the mother. Yoeh et al. (2007) state that, more research is necessary into the analysis of the interactions between the socio-demographic factors and family support. According to the argument of Erkkola, et al. (2010), some women fail to breastfeed because of their lifestyle whereby some of them engage in smoking, and bear drinking, which is not healthy for the baby. Parental education is a major determinant of breastfeeding whereby mothers require to be taught about the importance of breastfeeding and how to breastfeed their babies (Haastrup, Pottegård, &Damkier, 2014). As well as this study has not looked at the geographic factors, that may influence breastfeeding. It is apparent that, Australia experience similar factors determining breastfeeding rates like in other countries, but communication and widespread education can resolve this issue. This require sharing knowledge across regions, generations, cultures and gender can all help to dissolve current attitude (Erkkola, et al. 2010). Coutinho, et al. (2014) identify that, some women fail to breastfeed because of their health after delivery, while others die during delivery and leave the baby to be fed with other types of milk. Lanktree, Ssebuko, Alibhai, Jhangri, Kipp and Saunders (2011) point out that, the possible reason why rural mothers breastfeed is probably because they are at home while urban mothers work and are not always with their babies. The authors state that, HIV mothers continue breastfeeding while aware of the transmission of the virus through breast milk, but majority claim they cannot afford the additional cost of solid foods. The study by Baghurst et al. (2007) examined duration and not initiations, so there can be some bias in the result because the questions in the BSES requires some experience of breastfeeding, these mothers were all first time mothers. Regardless the status of the country whether poor or rich, developed or developing all experience low levels of breastfeeding rates, the world needs universal strategies to promote initiation and longer continuation of breastfeeding for every mother who is healthy enough to breastfeed her infant (Phelps, 2011). For proper breastfeeding, a mother has to feed well and this is determined by her economic status whereby some of them live poor life just to leave their babies and engage in manual labour looking for a living. As articulated by Queensland Health (2011), breastfeed should not be a choice but an obligation. Lanktree et al., (2011) observed the variances in breastfeeding exercises at 3 months post delivery between HIV positive and HIV negative women. As well as the factors related with the observance of the national infant feeding guidelines at 3 months post natal. They examined 138 HIV-negative women and 44 HIV-positive women. Observance to the national infant feeding guidelines (ATG) was low particularly in HIV-positive mothers. In rural areas mothers followed the ATG at 3 months, with lower percentage of mothers in the urban districts. Interestingly the preferred exclusive breastfeeding rates to infants at 3 months for HIV-positive mothers was approximately 66% and for HIV-negative 68% not much of a difference. Breastfeeding in Australia: Evidence from the 2010 Australian National Infant Feeding Survey reveals that 96% of mothers start breastfeeding at birth, then the exclusive rates decline with 39% of infants being fed to 3 months and 15% to 5 months (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2011). A study conducted by Baghurst et al. (2007), was accessing the Breast-Feeding Self-Efficacy Scale score, and observing demographic variables in duration of breastfeeding for first time mothers in Adelaide. It was found out that the factors below contributed to the duration of feeding infants with breast milk in Australia. 1.) Mother’s age –There was a shorter duration observed in women under 25 as opposed to women 35-44 feeding for longer periods. 2.) Ethnic Background and languages spoken by mother 3.) Education status – Tertiary educated women nursed longer than others. 4.) Employment status (during pregnancy) – Employed women fed longer than those who were not working. 5.) Living conditions – Women who had privately owned homes fed for longer periods. Women in shared accommodation had an early cessation. 6.) Smoking status – Smoking in cases where the mothers smoking throughout or partially pre-partum, most were connected with hasty weaning times. It is evident from the above that, longer breastfeeding times are closely linked to maturity of the mother, higher education status, and employment security, housing security. It is clear from the argument put forth by Australian Health Minister’s conference (2010) that, Australian population can be healthier if mother are in a position to breastfeed their babies according to the recommended period and process. Different studies found that, mother is a core determinant of breastfeeding effectiveness “Yoeh et al. (2007), Baghurst et al, (2007) and Shahla, & Kable, (2010).” Looking at the mothers of Indigenous decent, almost 50% of them did not breastfeed their infants as opposed to non-Indigenous at 36% (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2011). Interestingly, data analysis using an adjusted multiple logistic regression analysis revealed five independent risk factors connected to not breastfeeding, these were Australian by birth, unmarried, disadvantaged living situations, low education status and those who were smoking currently (Coutinho, et al. 2014). This study produced consistent findings of other studies done worldwide where low breastfeeding rates were connected to lower socio-demographic levels “(Yoeh et al., 2007), (Dozier, & McKee, 2011); and (Mortensen, &Tawia, 2013).” Observing practices in Australia, various issues, such as ignorance, misconceptions and socio-cultural beliefs affect the breastfeeding attitude observed in the country. The areas have not been addressed in the articles and the ones in need of further research include; seeking for mothers opinions regarding their willingness and understanding of breastfeeding. More studies need to be done in the same area looking at a larger population size to determine the reason for cessation of exclusive breastfeeding. Conclusion In conclusion, breastfeeding rate is determined by various factors that are directly and indirectly associated with the mothers. Notwithstanding global acknowledgment of breastfeeding benefits on both mother and child with current and ongoing health awareness programs, breastfeeding rates continue to be minimal. According to the World Health Organization, only less than 40% of mothers are breastfeeding to date. Breastfeeding plays an essential role in the Millennium Development Goals devised by the United Nations in 2000, which are proposed to be fully executed by 2015. Regardless of the current efforts by various health organizations and governmental agencies aggressive strategies are required to be implemented with immediate effect focusing on socially disadvantaged families. References Australian Health Minister’s conference. (2010). Australian national breastfeeding strategy 2010-2015. Retrieved from; http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/6FD59347DD67ED8FCA257BF0001CFD1E/$File/Breastfeeding_strat1015.pdf Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (2011). 2010 Australian National Infant Feeding Survey: Indicator Results. Canberra: AIHW. Retrieved from: http://www.aihw.gov.au/publication-detail/?id=10737420927 Baghurst, P., Pincombe, J., Peat, B., Henderson, A., Reddin, E., & Antoniou, G. (2007). Breast feeding self-efficacy and other determinants of the duration of breast feeding in a cohort of first-time mothers in Adelaide, Australia. Midwifery, 23(4), 382-391. Retrieved from; http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17126967 Casey, G. (2012). Breastfeeding and drugs. Kai Tiaki : Nursing New Zealand, 18(2), 20-4. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.libraryproxy.griffith.edu.au/docview/1017876970?accountid=14543 Coutinho, S. B., Lira, P. I. C., Lima, M. C., Frias, P. G., Eickmann, S. H., & Ashworth, A. (2014). Promotion of exclusive breast-feeding at scale within routine health services: impact of breast-feeding counselling training for community health workers in Recife, Brazil. Public Health Nutrition, 17(04), 948-955. Dozier, A. M., & McKee, K. S. (2011). State breastfeeding worksite statutes.... breastfeeding rates ... and.... Breastfeeding Medicine, 6(5), 319+. Retrieved from; http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22007820 Erkkola, M., Salmenhaara, M., Kronberg-Kippilä, C., Ahonen, S., Arkkola, T., Uusitalo, L., Pietinen, P., Veijola, R., Knip, M., Virtanen, S. M. (2010).Determinants of breast-feeding in a Finnish birth cohort.Public Health Nutrition, 13(4), 504-513. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1368980009991777 Garnham, L. D. (2014). Improved support required to increase breastfeeding rates. The British journal of general practice : the journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners. 64:620 Haastrup, M. B., Pottegård, A., &Damkier, P. (2014). Alcohol and breastfeeding. Basic & clinical pharmacology & toxicology, 114(2), 168-173.doi: 10.1111/bcpt.12149 Lanktree, E., Ssebuko, A., Alibhai, A., Jhangri, G., Kipp, W., & Saunders, L. D. (2011). Breastfeeding practices of HIV-positive and HIV-negative women in Kabarole district, Uganda. Maternal & child nutrition, 7(4), 378-388. doi: 10.1111/j.1740-8709.2010.00245.x Mortensen, K., &Tawia, S. (2013). Sustained breastfeeding. Breastfeeding Review, 21(1), 22+. Retrieved from; http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA322479244&v=2.1&u=griffith&it=r&p=HRCA&sw=w&asid=eb2defe018525f2f47475bff22bbce1e Phelps, C. E. (2011). Economic issues of breastfeeding. Breastfeeding Medicine, 6(5), 307+. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA272510815&v=2.1&u=griffith&it=r&p=HRCA&sw=w&asid=26aef69f3b8af4432da042ddf27a0abd Queensland Health. (2010). Breastfeeding initiation. Retrieved from; http://www.health.qld.gov.au/qcg/documents/g_bf5-0.pdf Queensland Health. (2011). Importance of breastfeeding. Retrieved from http://www.health.qld.gov.au/breastfeeding/importance.asp Shahla, M. & Kable, A. K. (2010). Factors that positively influence breastfeeding duration to 6 months: a literature review; Women and Birth, 23(4), 135-145. Retrieved from; http://epubs.scu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1913&context=hahs_pubs&sei-redir=1&referer=http%3A%2F%2Fscholar.google.com%2Fscholar_url%3Fhl%3Den%26q%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fepubs.scu.edu.au%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%253Farticle%253D1913%2526context%253Dhahs_pubs%26sa%3DX%26scisig%3DAAGBfm2lirusCIWDCb3CPqt5o099PmnXqw%26oi%3Dscholarr#search=%22http%3A%2F%2Fepubs.scu.edu.au%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1913%26context%3Dhahs_pubs%22 United Nations Development Programme. (2005).Investing in Development: A Practical Plan to achieve The Millennium Development Goals. Retrieved from http://www.unmillenniumproject.org/documents/MainReportComplete-lowres.pdf World Health Organization. (2014). 10 facts on breastfeeding. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/features/factfiles/breastfeeding/en/ Yeoh, B. H., Eastwood, J., Phung, H., &Woolfenden, S. (2007). Factors influencing breastfeeding rates in south‐western Sydney.Journal of paediatrics and child health, 43(4), 249-255. Read More