Lung and Blood Pressure - Lab Report Example

Lung and Blood Pressure xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx Name xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx Course xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx Instructor xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx Date LUNG PRESSURE Introduction The lung is one of the most vital organs in the body as it facilitates breathing hence sustaining life. There are two lungs contained in the chest area and covered by a ribcage which serves to protect the lungs from physical impact. Oxygen is taken into the lungs while carbon dioxide is expelled out of the lungs. Being a crucial body organ it is important frequent tests are done on the lungs to determine its functionality. These tests also known as pulmonary function tests are used to measure the amount of air entering the lungs, strength of muscles in the respiratory system, how much air is expelled from the lungs and at what speed as well as efficiency of the lungs in delivering oxygen to other parts of the body (Cotes et al 2007). A spirometer is a commonly used device in the measurement of the amount of air entering and leaving the lungs in addition to the speed of the air moving out of the lungs. A spirometer is commonly used in measuring parameters such as Forced Vital Capacity (FVC), Forced Expiratory Volume (FEV), maximum Voluntary Ventilation (MVV), Forced expiratory flow, Slow Vital Capacity (SVC), Total Lung Capacity (TLC), Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) and Residual Volume (RV). These parameters are quite helpful during the diagnosis of various respiratory diseases for instance asthma, pulmonary fibrosis and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD). Besides this, it is quite easy for the physician to know the way forward in treating the disease (Gosselink et al 2011). Aims To determine how a spirometer operates in measuring peak expiratory flow rate. To determine the differences between peak expiratory flow rates in males and females. To determine the differences between pulmonary capacities and pulmonary volumes. Materials Manual peak flow meter Electronic spirometer Procedure for manual peak flow meter It was ensured that the blue pointer was at the lowest point and the mouthpiece was connected to the meter. Each student had a different mouthpiece and he was required to stand tall or be sited in an upright position while the experiment was being conducted. The meter was held using the thumb and the forefinger. The students then took a deep breath and placed the mouthpiece in the mouth sealing it completely using the lips. Air was then blown into the meter very hard and fast at short blasts of 1 to 2 seconds. Numbers on the blue indicator were rear and recorded in a table. Procedure for electronic spirometer The spirometer was switched on to the “blow” position and a cardboard disposable mouthpiece connected to it. For purposes of hygiene, a new mouthpiece was connected for each student. The student being tested was required to stand straight and if not possible sit in the most upright position. The meter is held with the thumb finger and the fore finger of one hand while the student takes a deep breath. The mouthpiece of the meter was then placed in the mouth and sealed completely with the lips so that no air would escape. The student then blows into the meter very hard and fast in quick blasts of 1 to2 seconds. The meter is withdrawn from the mouth and switched to the “read” position which gives 4 readings. The results were properly recorded and entered in the website. Results Name/ Parameter Jhan Abdullah Abdulhadi Meshal Mohammed FEV1 4.44 2.91 3.90 3.54 3.01 FVC 4.41 2.90 3.85 3.52 3.00 PEV 615 537 697 601 653 FER 100 100 101 100 100 Figure 1: Electronic Spirometer readings Males Females 670 470 530 470 620 350 620 460 720 510 510 540 600 330 600 500 450 440 580 400 540 280 680 490 550 440 610 440 590 455 660 410 450 410 450 250 680 420 550 450 700 470 480 510 Figure 2: Peak flow results for males and females. Discussion Peak expiratory flow is a measure of the maximum speed of air leaving the lungs as indicated by the peak flow meter. Peak flow readings differ depending on factors such as sex, height, age and health of the patient. This experiment was aimed at determining the differences in peak flows between males and females and the results indicated significant differences in the readings. It is quite clear that females have low PEFR ranging between 280 and 540L/min in comparison with their male counterparts whose range is between 450 and 720L/ min (Patel and Morrissey 2011). Literature suggests several explanations to this variation. Generally, the alveolar pressure in men is higher than in females. This is as result of the fact that they do have large lung volume and their lungs are more elastic. Furthermore, male lungs exhibit more power and better coordination which is greatly enhanced by frequent exercises and training during sports and other muscle involving activities (Hancox and Whyte 2001). In addition, many of the male students are exposed to cigarettes which have a direct effect on increased peak respiratory flow rate. This comes as a result of increased airway hyperresponsiveness which ultimately speeds up the air being expelled from the lungs. Past research has indicated that PEFR increases with height (Marino et al 2007). This therefore, explains the significant difference in the PEFR’s of tall male students and shorter female students. Pulmonary volume refers to the amount of air that is taken into the lungs with each inhalation or the amount that leaves with each expiration. On the other hand, pulmonary capacity refers to the maximum amount of air that can be contained in the lungs at any given time (Ashalatha 2006). There are many factors that influence pulmonary volume and capacity and they include nutrition, height, weight, hormones activities, sleep among other factors. This was demonstrated in the experiment with the four group members Abdullah, Abduhadi, Meshal and Mohamed. Although these students had the same age, they had differing weight and height which ultimately caused differing parameters: FEV1, FVC, PER and FER.It has been proven that tall individuals have large lung volumes hence parameters such as FEV 1 and FVC are generally high. In addition, FEV1 and PEFR in highly active individuals, especially those actively involved in sports are significantly high in comparison to controls. Exercising increases lung volume and alveolar distensibility enhancing entrance of large amounts of air into the lungs (Reece 2009). Weight is another factor that causes variations in pulmonary volumes and capacities. It is has been proven that individuals with large weights do have reduced lung volume as compared to those with less weight. The lungs of such individuals are aligned with fatty tissues which contributes to reduced lung volume hence reduced capacity of air entering the lungs. Residence of an individual also plays part in determination of pulmonary volume and capacity. Individuals living in high altitude areas are more vulnerable to conditions such as altitude sickness which comes due to inefficient expulsion of carbon dioxide from the lungs (Gosselink et al 2011). Conclusion The practical was successfully conducted as all the objectives were fully met. The use of students themselves ensured that all the concepts were well understood as they practiced the procedures on their own bodies. At the end of the experiment, students were well conversant with the operation of a manual peak flow meter as well as an electronic spirometer. The male and female sample from the classroom was an adequate representation of the trends in the various parameters involved in lung functioning tests. Students were able to determine how different features such as height and weight in different individuals caused variations in pulmonary volumes and capacities. BLOOD PRESSURE Introduction The heart is located right at the centre of the chest where it is protected by the rib cage. It is a double pump. One of the pumps, one the right side, receives blood from the blood and then pumps it to the lungs through the pulmonary artery. The other pump, on the left side, receives blood from the lungs and pumps it to the aorta during contraction. The aorta supply blood to the rest of the blood through its branches, the arteries (Taylor 2010). Blood pressure is defined as the force that is exerted by the blood on the walls of the blood vessels when the heart contracts (pumps) and relaxes. Diastolic is defined as the force exerted on the wall of a blood vessel when the heart relaxes while Systolic blood pressure is that degree of force when the heart is contracting. A pulse may be defined as rhythmic contraction and expansion of an artery which is as a result of the blood being pumped from the heart. The pulse may be felt using fingers at various pulse pressure points (Breitrose & Fortmann 2006). The measurement of blood pressure (Bp) is painless and quick. A blood pressure machine or a sphygmomanometer is used in measurement. It is measured in millimeters of mercury abbreviated as (mmHg). It is usually recorded as systolic pressure over diastolic pressure. For instance, 120 over 80, which may be a blood reading is abbreviated as 120/80. Electronic blood pressures are being widely used in measuring blood pressure. Mercury is slowly being phased out due to its hazardous nature (Breitrose & Fortmann 2006). In this experiment, an electronic Bp meter to measure the blood pressure. Data was exchanged among the students. The results obtained in this experiment are the then tabulated and comparison of blood pressure in average male and female was analyzed in a scattered diagram. Discussion of the results is done whereby rats are given as examples. Aims To determine how an electronic Bp meter works. To study and analyze the different blood pressure and pulse rate measurement in females and males. To compare and contrast blood pressure measurement in males and females. Material and Method Material Electronic Blood pressure meter. Method The student taking the blood pressure reading was made to relax and comfortably seated, with the arms supported well. A cuff then was wrapped around the student’s upper arm. The O/I start button was then pressed on and the cuff automatically started to inflate round the arm. A continuous increase of pressure and tightening was felt on the upper arm. After few seconds, the measurements started deflating and the heartbeat symbol was flashing at every heartbeat. The cuff completely deflated when the measurements were done. The machine gave the value of systolic and diastolic pressure and pulse. The blood pressure was measured in mmHg. The measurements were taken for 24 students in the class. The results were then shared among the students. Results The following data was obtained from the 24 students: Figure1: Blood pressure Male Female 70 86 80 94 82 103 86 104 90 90 87 115 96 83 74 114 80 113 80 109 96 87 105 114 134 97 108 109 73 91.6 71 81.3 90 109 86 75 79 104 83.3 90 72 62 92 97 74 91 114 122 Figure2: Pulse rates Graphs analysis as obtained from the data A graphing showing shows male both blood pressure and pulse rate A graph showing female graph blood pressure and Pulse rate Calculations Average Male blood Pressure=135/79mmHg Average female blood pressure=121/77mmHg I. PULSE PRESSURE a) Pulse pressure in Females (Average) Systolic pressure- Diastolic Pressure 121mmHg-77mmHg=44mmHg b) In males (Average) 135mmHg-79mmHg=56mmHg II. MEAN ARTERIAL PRESSURE (MAP) DP-Diastolic Pressure SP-Systolic Pressure In females; MAP = DP+1/3 (SP-DP) =77+1/3(44) =91.7mmHg In males; MAP=DP+1/3 (SP-DP) =79+1/3(56) =97.7mmHg Discussion From the given data, there is gender-associated difference in blood pressure and pulse rate. Men tend to have a higher blood pressure than women. However, this is observed until the age of 60 to 70 years (Coni & Coni 2003). At this age the blood pressure become comparable to that of the men. This explains the reason men are at the risk of suffering from renal complications and cardiovascular diseases. This difference may be attributed to the kidney and sex hormones. This case is also observed in rats. The kidneys do play a major in regulation of blood pressure. One of the hypotheses is that a decrease in the excretion of renal sodium or rightward shift of the relationship of pressure-natriuresis may lead to an increase in blood pressure (Hart et al 2004). The hypothesis continues to elaborate that pressure-natriuresis curve appear blunted in male spontaneously hypersensitive rats (SHR).Castration of males SHR does restore the pressure-natriuresis relationship. This evidently implies that androgen contributes to the high blood pressure in males. In addition, it is reported that administration of testosterone to female SHR that have undergone ovariectomization increases the blood pressure and highly contribute to the modification of pressure- natriuresis relationship (Hart et al 2004). This finding may be used to explain the increase of blood pressure in menopausal women and elderly rats. In female hormones, evidence has been observed between the protections of female sex hormones against salt-induced increase in blood pressure (Coni & Coni 2003). Therefore, when Dahl salt-sensitive rats (DS) get a high-sodium diet, male rats become more hypertensive than female rats. Gonadectomy does result to increase growth of salt-sensitive hypertension in the female rats (Thapar 2004). Of important note, female sex hormones not only affect the excretion of sodium but also the intake of sodium. The spontaneous intake of sodium is mainly observed in female than in males. In this respect, the hormone estradiol has been found to modulate the intake of sodium of normetensive and SHR female rats and is correlated with the intake of sodium (Johnson 2006). Taken together, the above experiments performed on rats have clearly indicated that female sex hormones modulate the sodium balance which eventually contributes to regulation of blood pressure. In addition, male SHR are observed to have higher diastolic and systolic pressure than the females SHR. However, male and female SHR have not been found to have different heart rate. It is important to note that there is no correlation between blood pressure and pulse rate. Measurement of heart rate does not indicate high or low blood pressure (Taylor 2010). It was worth to note that pulse rate does differ with activities being taken by an animal or human. For example, during exercise the pulse rate tends to be higher than during rest. Conclusion The practical on blood pressure was successful. Data was recorded and the students were able to learn how the electronic blood pressure meter is used. The aims of the experiments were well fulfilled, that is, it was easily to obtain the differences in blood pressure in the males and females as well as analyze and describe the differences. This was done using the rats as they are most used in biological experiments. The results showed that males tend to have high blood pressure compared to females. Reasons for this were given in the discussion which includes kidney activities and sex hormones that affect both male and female rats. REFERENCES Coni, N, Coni, H, 2003. Blood pressure: all you need to know, New York: Royal Society of Medicine Press Hart, T, T, Murphy, Fahey, T, 2004, High blood pressure: the ‘at your fingertips’ guide, London: Class Pub. Thapar, G, 2004, Blood Pressure, Delhi: Unique Color Carton Johnson, P, 2006, The Blood Pressure, New York: John-Wiley. Taylor, T, 2010, Blood Pressure: A Vampire Testament, New York: St. Martin’s Press Breitrose, E, Fortmann, P, 2006, The Blood Pressure Book: How to Get It Down and Keep It Down, London: Bull Pub. Co. Ashalatha, P. 2006. Textbook of anantomy and physiology for nurses. NewDelhi: Jaypee Brothers. Cotes, J., Chinn, D. and Miller, M. 2006. Lung function: theory and measurement in health and disease. Malden, Mass: Blackwell publication. Gosselink, R., Stam, H. and European Respiratory Society. 2011. Lung function testing. Sheffield: ERS Journals. Hancox, B. and Whyte, K. 2001. McGraw-Hill’s pocket guide to lung function tests. New York: McGrae-Hill. Marino, P., Sutin, K. and R2 Library, 2007. The ICU handbook. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins. Patel, V. and Morrissey, J. 2011. Practical and professional clinical skills. New York: Oxford University Press. Reece, W. 2009. Functional anatomy and physiology of domestic animals. Ames, Lowa: Wiley-Blackwell. Read More