Basic Concepts of Biochemistry - Essay Example

Answers to Biochemistry Questions Cell cycle; describe all phases, including Meiosis, cell cycle regulation (cyclins, CDK) The most considered cell that undergoes cell-division is the eukaryotic cell where two processes takes place; doubling of its DNA (genome) and in the synthesis phase (S phase) of the cell-cycle and halving of genome during M phase (mitosis). The cell cycle consists G1, S, G2, and M. G1 involves the preparation and growth of chromosomes for duplication. S is the synthesis of DNA and replication of the centrosome while G2 is the preparation for M (mitosis) (Vasudevan 2013, p. 54). The cell-cycle is controlled by the proteins contained in the cytoplasm such as cyclins, Cdks and APC. The cell-cycle is regulated by the existence of proteins in the cytoplasm. Translocation of M-phase endorsing factor initiates assembling of the mitotic spindle, breaking down the nuclear envelope, cessation of every gene transcription and condensing the chromosomes. The passage process through the cell-cycle in meiosis I, and II involves numerous of similar players such as maturation-promoting factor (MPF) with the role of developing oocytes. The ell-cycle has three checkpoints including DNA damage checkpoints, succession checkpoint and spindle checkpoints. The DNA checkpoint senses the DNA damage before the entry of the cell into S phase and thereafter. Spindle checkpoints detect failure of any spindle fibers in attachment to kinetochores and improper alignment of it and block cytokinesis (Vasudevan 2013, p. 65). For example, the p53 protein usually senses DNA damage and easily halts the cell-cycle progression in G1. P53 gene copies should be muted for the failure where it qualifies to be tumor suppressor gene. P53 protein also plays in apoptosis forcing some unnecessary cells to commit suicide. Structure of DNA and RNA (what are types of RNA), where these molecules are present in the cell Deoxyribonucleic (DNA) and Ribonucleic acids (RNA) are the two types of nucleic acids the stores the genetic formation of all living organisms. The nucleotide bases which usually present in the DNA are cytosine, adenine, thymine and guanine. The alignment of DNA is a double strand. RNA is usually essential in producing proteins in living organisms (Vasudevan 2013, p. 204). It serves as a genetic messenger and has four bases similar to that of DNA except thymine; instead, uracil is what is present. The structure of RNA is a single strand. Genomic and mitochondrial DNA’s are the two types of DNA while m-RNA, t-RNA, and r-RNA are the three types of RNA. Differences between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes (on the cellular and genetic level) There are four differences between prokaryotes and Eukaryotes ass discussed. One of the differences is that eukaryotic cells usually have nucleus bounded by a double membrane whereas prokaryotic cells lacks nucleus. Secondly, prokaryotic DNA has a circular shape while eukaryotic DNA has a linear shape. The third difference is that the eukaryotic cell’s ribosomes are more complex and larger than those of the prokaryotic cell (Vasudevan 2013, p. 323). The final difference is that the ctytoplasm of eukaryotic cells is composed of complex organelles, which are large and complex each of them enclosed with individual membrane whereas prokaryotic cell lacks membrane-bound organelles, independent from the plasma membrane. Replication, transcription – decryption of these processes in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes, compare and contrast Transcription entails copying the DNA into RNA particularly the codes for genes from DNA. The genes are transcribed into m-RNA messenger (Vasudevan 2013, p. 497). DNA replication is the way of copying the DNA into a cell for the purpose of having two copies. Similarities between transcription and DNA replication Both of the processes involve binding of nucleic acids to DNA where a new strand of either RNA or DNA is yielded for all eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms. Both of the processes can result to an error incorporated nucleotide is incorrect (Vasudevan 2013, p. 502). Both DNA replication and transcription involves making DNA or RNA cells in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells respectively. Differences Transcription occurs in preparing protein translation while DNA replication happens in preparing the cell division in both eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms. DNA replication is essential for proper regulation of cell’s growth and division in the eukaryotic organism (Vasudevan 2013, p. 546) . The DNA cannot replicate if the growth factors of the cell are missing, thereby controlling the rate of cell division. Transcription of DNA involves regulation of gene expression in prokaryotic organism. All the cells can contain copies of the genes, but the turn on or the expression of the cell is what matters most in the function of the cell. Transcription only occurs after a gene in prokaryotic is turned on. Function of enzymes involved in replication and transcription, its properties (for example; DNA polymerase, RNA polymerase, helicase, topoisomerase and primase) Helicase is useful in breaking down of the bonds of hydrogen that hold the base pair jointly allowing unwinding of two parental strands of DNA begin and form two-replication forks. Primase helps in copying DNA template strand through complementing RNA strand. DNA polymerase III is essential in catalyzing the chemical reactions in polymerizing the nucleotides (Vasudevan 2013, p. 576). RNA se H and DNA polymerase I help in the exclusion of RNA primers through processing DNA after the replication. Gene techniques, steps, applications and its examples: PCR, qPCR, RFLP, paternity test, Gene Profiling and electrophoresis RFLP and PCR are the types of DNA testing. Polymerase Chain Reaction testing involves the provided DNA sample and examines it by multiplying and magnifying it carefully. It is essential in diagnosing diseases, identification of viruses and bacteria and matching of the criminals to their crime scenes. Quantitative PCR (q-PCR) involves the combination of PCR detection and amplification into a single step (Vasudevan 2013, p. 616). Reactions are run q-PCR instruments with the capabilities of fluorescence detection and thermal cycling. RFLP (restriction fragment length polymorphism) or paternity test involves dissimilarity in homologous DNA series detectable by the present fragments with different lengths through the digestion of DNA samples with exact restriction endonucleases. RFLP testing requires either a swab of the inner cheek or a blood sample. Analysis of electrophoresis pictures of gels after PCR, what are the bands on the gel and comment on results, recall info from practical (what is for example NTC, PCR mix) Gel electrophoresis is a method used in laboratory to separate mixtures of RNA, DNA, or proteins in accordance with their molecular size (Vasudevan 2013, p. 628). No template control (NTC) has both the advantages and disadvantages in gel electrophoresis. NTC’s are considerable in every part of PCR reaction. Analysis of data from paternity tests or RFLP (go back to ppt - gene techniques and any examples) and discuss how these techniques are used in the diagnosis of gene mutations Paternity hair testing is a technological method of DNA test involving the determination on whether a male is the owner of a particular child or not (Vasudevan 2013, p. 644). The hair from the man and the child are used as a DNA sample containing the genetic information and then compared. Gene therapy, aim of gene therapy, types of viruses and gene transfer Gene therapy is a form of experiment that aims in getting rid of genetic circumstances at their basis. Gene therapy usually replaces faulty gene with a performing version or introduces a new gene to modify or cure a condition or its effects (Vasudevan 2013, p. 657). Examples of viruses include herpesvirus, influenza virus and AIDS viruses. Gene transfer is the process by which cleansed genes are moved into tissues or cells. Gene transfer efficiency varies on depending with the used vector or the intentioned system. Gene silencing is a mechanism whereby large segments of chromosomal DNA are shut down by the cells into heterochromatin. SiRNA is a category of RNA that goes through many biological processes known as RNA interference. References List Vasudevan, D. M. (2013). Textbook of biochemistry for medical students. [s.l.], Jaypee brothers medical p. Read More