Smoking and the Endocrine System - Essay Example

Smoking and the Endocrine System Endocrine System and Functions The endocrine system is the system that regulates body functions. According to Mitchell, et.al. (2006) it “is a highly integrated and widely distributed group of tissues that orchestrates a state of metabolic equilibrium (homeostasis) between the body’s various organs”. Hormones, produced by the glands regulate the body’s growth, metabolism and sexual development. These hormones are released into the bloodstream and usually affect the different organs and systems of the body. Hormones act on target cells distant from the site where they are synthesized. In instances where there is increased activity in the target cells, the hormones act to decrease activity in these cells, and thereby establish balance and regulated body functioning. The major glands that make up the endocrine system are the hypothalamus, pituitary thyroid, and parathyroids, adrenals, pineal body and the reproductive organs. The hypothalamus regulates “satiety, metabolism, and body temperature” (eMedicine Health, 2009). It also produces hormones that regulate the release of hormones in the pituitary gland. The pituitary gland regulates growth, sexual function, lactation (in females), water loss by kidneys, contraction of uterus during childbirth, blood pressure, heart rate and digestion. The adrenal glands regulate the body’s metabolism, immune, sexual function, and adrenaline response. The pineal body regulates the sleep-wake cycle of the body. And the reproductive organs regulate the male and female characteristics, sexual development and reproductive functions. The endocrine system is regulated through the feedback mechanism. A signal is sent from the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland. The pituitary gland then secretes a stimulating hormone into the blood. This stimulating hormone then stimulates the target gland to secrete the needed hormone. When the level of the hormone increases in circulation, the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland downgrades the secretion of the stimulating hormone, which will function to slow down secretion by the target gland. Smoking and the Endocrine System Smoking has various effects on the endocrine system. One of the most abundant and active components of cigarettes is nicotine. Nicotine affects the posterior pituitary gland and stimulates the antidiuretic hormone (ADH). In turn, the ADH increases the constriction of the coronary arteries thereby decreasing blood flow. Studies have also revealed that there is a lesser concentration of serum prolactin levels for smokers as compared to those who are non-smokers. This has the effect of producing infertility in long-term smokers. Researchers have also revealed that there is a higher degree of thyroid-stimulating hormone in smokers, making them more likely to develop goiters and Grave’s disease as compared to non-smokers. Smoking affects bone and calcium metabolism; it is considered a risk factor for osteoporosis and is proven to “hinder healing after injuries or surgery” (Becker, et.al., 2001). Smoking affects gonadal and reproductive functions. Women smokers have a higher degree of infertility and menstrual problems. Nicotine also suppresses the satiety center of the brain, decreasing the appetite of smokers. They also have an earlier onset of menopause. Some studies suggest that nicotine has an adverse affect on the metabolism of estrogen, hence some reproductive problems for women are created by smoking. A direct relationship between placental lactogen and birth weight was shown by various studies on pregnant smokers making them prone to having smaller babies (Becker, et.al., 2001). Smoking also causes the endocrine system to abnormally distribute body fat, storing fat more around the waist and upper torso, and not so much around the hips. This makes smokers with higher waist-hip ratio susceptible to “gallbladder problems, high blood pressure, uterine and breast cancers, and a higher risk for diabetes” (Stewart, 2001). Predictable results if Obama should quit smoking (endocrine system) If Barack Obama should ever quit smoking, it would produce various health benefits to his body, especially his endocrine system. First and foremost, smoking cessation has a “positive influence on bone mass and thus [will] decrease the risk of fracture” (BMA Tobacco Control Resource Center, 2006). He would have a decreased risk of suffering from fractures, especially hip fractures because his bones would not anymore be as vulnerable to breakage as compared to when he was smoking. As his years of smoking cessation increase, the negative effects of smoking to his bones would slowly be reversed. If Obama should ever quit smoking, he would most likely gain weight. When nicotine does not anymore suppress Obama’s appetite, he is most likely to eat more and consequently gain weight. Studies have also revealed that thyroid disorders become less common after smoking cessation. Obama would also have a decreased risk of developing thyroid disorders like goiters and Grave’s disease. His fertility would also be increased. Studies have revealed greater fertility problems for smokers. As Obama is father to two daughters, his smoking has evidently not affected his ability to father a child. However, if he should ever plan to father more children, his chances of doing so would be increased. Endocrine system and other systems The endocrine system is very much related to other systems in the body. It is primarily related to the nervous system because “both systems are the communication links of the body and aid the body’s life systems to function correctly and in relation to each other” (Cartage, n.d). They serve as message relay systems to coordinate proper bodily functions. Some of the endocrine organs, such as the hypothalamus and posterior pituitary gland, are nerve tissues that affect the secretion of hormones needed for system regulation. The endocrine and nervous systems both use the hormones in signaling and transmitting responses to different parts of the body. Both systems work to maintain homeostasis in the body. In relation to the digestive system, the gastrointestinal is actually considered the biggest endocrine organ of the body. The hormone secreting organs in the GIT line up the different organs of the digestive tract. These hormones “sense chemical substances in food” (Smith & Morton, 2001). And they act as taste cells and help in the breakdown of food substances. The muscular system is also interrelated to the endocrine system in that, when the hormone acetylcholine is released, the skeletal muscles would react by contracting (Sherwood, 2005). The transmission of response from the muscles to the brain and back again is accomplished through the interaction between the nervous and the endocrine system lending movement and muscle function to the body during periods of activity and especially during exercise. The endocrine is also related to the respiratory system through the thyroid gland and cellular metabolism, “each contributes to determining the steady-state levels of carbon dioxide and tissue oxygen” (Werner, et.al., 2005). As regards the circulatory system, the endocrine system uses the circulatory system to transport the different hormones to their target organs. The circulatory system enables the hormones to affect organs that are not located near the glands that create the hormones (Clinton Community College, n.d). Other systems of the body are very much interrelated with the endocrine system primarily through the hormones that help regulate body functions and maintain homeostasis. Reproductive System and Functions The reproductive system is the “organ system by which humans reproduce and bear live offspring” (Britannica Encyclopedia Online, 2009). This system is composed of the male and female reproductive systems which involve different organs and functions in order to accomplish the goal of procreation. The male reproductive system produces and transports sperms, which are the male reproductive cells; discharges sperm within the female reproductive tract during intercourse; and produces male hormones in order to maintain male sexual characteristics. It is composed of the following organs: penis, scrotum, testicles, epididymis, vas deferens, ejaculatory ducts, urethra, seminal vesicles, prostate gland and bulbourethral glands. The penis is the male organ for copulation. It contains spaces that fill with blood when the man is aroused. The scrotum contains the testicles; it has a built in heat control mechanism that keeps the spermatozoa viable. The testes produce the male hormone testosterone and are made up of the seminiferous tubules that produce the sperm cells. The epididymis transports and stores the sperm cells allowing them to reach maturity. The vas deferens connects to the epididymis and transports the mature sperm cells to the urethra. The urethra ejaculates semen during orgasm. The seminal vesicles produce fructose which gives the sperm the energy additional energy. The prostate gland contributes fluids that also help nourish the sperm. And the bulbourethral glands produce the clear and slippery fluid that helps lubricate the urethra and neutralize the acidity of the vaginal canal. The female reproductive system produces the female egg cells (ova) that would later be fertilized by the male sperms. This system is also responsible for the development of female sexual characteristics. The female reproductive organs are: labia majora, labia minora, Bartholin’s glands, clitoris, vagina, uterus, ovaries, and fallopian tubes. The labia majora protects the external organs of the female reproductive system. It contains “sweat and oil-secreting glands” (Medicine.Net, 2009). The labia minora lie just inside the labia majora and surround the opening of the vagina. The Bartholin’s glands are located near the vaginal opening and are responsible for producing fluid and mucus secretions that help lubricate the vagina during intercourse. The clitoris is a sensitive protrusion very much comparable to the penis in males. It is sensitive to stimulation and can also become erect when the female is aroused. The vagina is also known as the birth canal. It also receives the penis during intercourse and serves as passage for menstrual blood flow. The uterus is hollow and pear-shaped and carries the fetus after successful implantation. The ovaries are oval-shaped glands on either side of the uterus; they produce the eggs and the female hormones. Lastly, the fallopian tubes are narrow tubes attached to the uterus. These tubes carry the eggs from the ovaries to the uterus. Smoking and the Reproductive System Smoking affects the reproductive system in a variety of ways. Studies conducted in New England, Boston (2005) have revealed possible links between smoking and erection problems. Their research revealed that 78% of those who reported erection problems were smokers. “The researches concluded that decreased potency might result from the negative effects of smoking on the blood vessels leading to the male reproductive organs” (Smoking Cessation, 2005). The studies measured decreased blood flow in about 10% of the male smokers with erection problems; and that such blood flow was very much proportional to the number of cigarettes smoked. At present smoking is the main cause of impotence in the United States. Hydrocarbons are inhaled when smoking tobacco. These hydrocarbons damage the walls of the arteries; they form plaques on the linings of the arteries causing decreased blood flow. The nicotine content of the cigarettes also constricts the arteries making them even narrower. “When your arteries leading to your heart are completely blocked, you suffer a heart attack. When the arteries leading to a man’s penis are blocked, he is impotent” (Peter, 2005). Smoking also affects the fertility of the males by decreasing their sperm count and reducing the motility of their sperm cells. Smoking also adversely affects the female reproductive system. Studies have shown that women who are heavy smokers have a 43 percent decline in their fertility. “Women who smoke also have fewer reproductive years: they reach menopause an average of 1 ¾ years earlier than nonsmokers” (Smoking Cessation, 2005). Some studies have also shown that women who smoke incur a higher risk of developing cervical dysplasia and cervical cancer. Nicotine usually attaches to the glands of the cervical cells. When exposed to the human papilloma virus, the DNA of the cervix can take on more abnormal features and develop into cancerous growths (Null & Seaman, 2001). Predictable results if Obama would ever quit smoking (reproductive system) In the event that Obama quits smoking, he would most likely reverse the damage that smoking has done to his reproductive system. The effects of nicotine would be eliminated, and the blood vessels leading to the penis would no longer be constricted. His potency is more likely to increase. His store of hydrocarbons would be slowly eliminated by his body, and plaque deposits at the walls of his arteries would dissipate over time. This would again ease blood flow into his penis and thereby decreasing his impotency. The motility of his sperm cells and his sperm count can also potentially be increased if he stops smoking. At first, his body will have a difficult time adjusting to the lack of nicotine in his system, however, in time his body will learn to function without nicotine. Eventually, his body will reverse some of the changes the nicotine has done on his body. If Obama would ever decide to quit smoking his sexual and reproductive life would vastly improve and his chances of fathering more children would most likely increase. Reproductive system and other systems The reproductive system is closely related to the endocrine system because of the hormones which are needed by the reproductive system to support its normal functioning. “Hormones of the reproductive system, activated during puberty, are produced by endocrine glands called gonads, which also house sex cells called gametes” (Follmer, 2007). These hormones are responsible for producing the male sexual characteristics and eventually aid in the production of the sperm cells. For the females, the hormones estrogen and progesterone help the egg cells develop and mature. They also regulate and assist in the development of female sexual characteristics. “The endocrine and reproductive systems are responsible for the many physical, emotional and mental changes taking place in the bodies of young adults, turning today’s boys and girls into tomorrow’s men and women” (Follmer, 2007). The reproductive system is also interrelated to the nervous system because the hypothalamus, which is part of the nervous system, functions to send a signal to the pituitary gland, which in turn releases hormones to the target reproductive organs. The secondary sexual characteristics that are developed affect the muscular and skeletal systems of the body, triggering accelerated growth in the bones and muscles of the teenage boys, and stimulating the storage of fat in the breast and hips of the teenage girls. Other systems become more interrelated to the reproductive system, especially in instances of pregnancy when more systems are needed to support fetal development and maturation. Metabolism and functions Metabolism is the transformation of matter into energy. In the human body, this involves the following processes: catabolism and anabolism. Catabolism involves the breaking down of large organic molecules into smaller constituents. This process involves the release of energy (ATP). Anabolism does the opposite of catabolism, where it assembles smaller molecules into larger molecules. This process involves the input of energy (ATP). Metabolism is usually seen in the digestive process, where we go through the process of ingesting organic molecules in order to develop our energy. Food is ingested and the process of digestion catalyzes the food items, breaking down polysaccharides into sugars, proteins to amino acids, fats to fatty acids and glycerol and nucleic acids into nucleotides. These broken down elements shall then be absorbed by the body and distributed into the cells (Kimball, 2003). Smoking and Metabolism Smoking adversely affects metabolism in the sense that it increases a person’s metabolic rate by forcing the heart to beat faster. Smoking forces the heart to beat faster and consequently causes extra stress on the heart muscles. Eventually, this additional stress may lead to heart disease, the most prevalent smoke-related death. “A smoking habit of 20 cigarettes a day puts approximately the same amount of stress on the heart as 90 pounds of extra weight would” (Martin, 2008). This added stress on the heart can be very dangerous for the human body as years of smoking accumulate. Smoking speeds up metabolism. This makes many smokers thin and less likely to feel their hunger. “Smokers can usually overcome hunger signals by lighting up” (Metabolism, 2008). Nicotine causes the release of adrenaline which causes glucose to be released into the blood. Nicotine also affects the effective functioning of insulin which causes sugar levels in the blood to remain high (Disability Online, 2003). High blood sugar levels are interpreted by the body as a recent meal eaten, as a result, the hunger center is not triggered, and the smoker does not feel the need to eat when he is supposed to. Consequently, fat and glucose stores are expended fast by the body, making smokers thin and sometimes gangly. Smoking affects digestion, with some studies showing that food usually stays longer in the stomach of smokers as compared to non-smokers. A full stomach is a signal for the brain that the person does not need to eat as yet. Some smokers also substitute the activity of eating with smoking. They even substitute eating of desserts with smoking, capping the end of their meals with a smoke. Smoking also increases the activity of liver enzymes that metabolize drugs and medicines. As a result, smokers usually need a larger dose of medicines than those who are non-smokers. Since the medicine is metabolized faster by the body, the potency and effect of the drug on the smoker is decreased. The metabolism of caffeine in the smoker’s body is also affected. Caffeine is metabolized faster by the smoker as compared to the non-smoker. Predictable results is Barack Obama should ever quit smoking (metabolism) In the event that Obama would ever quit smoking, he would most likely gain weight. More glucose will now be stored in his body cells because nicotine is no longer in his blood stream. Obama would also feel hungrier if he stops smoking. “Without nicotine, blood sugar levels are lower, which means hunger signals are triggered more often” (Disability Online, 2003). Obama’s metabolism rate would also slow down once he quits smoking, again contributing to a possible weight gain. The dosage of the medications that Obama may be taking would also have to be decreased because his drug metabolism is now slower. The effect of caffeine to his system will also be increased. The effect of say 6 cups of coffee, will more likely feel like 9 cups of coffee. This will cause him to “feel anxious, restless and jittery and may also make it harder [for him] to get sleep” (Foulds, 2007). Metabolism and other systems Metabolism is related to the endocrine system because the endocrine system emits chemicals and hormones that control the process of metabolism. The thyroid gland, which is part of the endocrine system, directly affects metabolism by releasing “hormones that control the rate by which the body’s cells burn fuel from energy” (Beam, 2009). More hormones produced by the thyroid gland increases the conversion of fuel to energy. The endocrine system affects the rate of metabolism, making it either faster or slower. Metabolism is related to the digestive system because it is the mechanical and eventually chemical process by which the process of metabolism is carried out. Through the digestive system, fuel or matter is ingested, digested, and later catalyzed into smaller molecules in order to allow distribution to the body’s cells. The respiratory system is related to the metabolism through the process of cellular metabolism wherein the “respiratory system provides oxygen for cellular metabolic needs and removes carbon dioxide, a waste product of cellular metabolism” (Timby & Smith, 2006). The nervous system is very much related to metabolism through the endocrine system. The pituitary gland and the hypothalamus help detect low and high levels of metabolism, and they send the signals to target organs to either increase or decrease metabolism. The other systems of the body are related to metabolism in the sense that their functions are slowed down or sped up depending on signals from the nervous and the endocrine system. Works Cited Anatomy of the Endocrine System (2009) EMedicine.net. Retrieved 20 March 2009 from http://www.emedicinehealth.com/anatomy_of_the_endocrine_system/article_em.htm Beam, J. (2009) How does the Endocrine System Control Metabolism? WiseGeek.com. Retrieved 20 March 2009 from http://www.wisegeek.com/how-does-the-endocrine-system-control-metabolism.htm Becker, K., et.al., (2001) Principles and Practice of Endocrinology and Metabolism. Philadelphia: J.B. 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