Endocrine System: The Pancreas, Diseases of, and Function - Research Paper Example

Endocrine system: the Pancreas, Diseases of and function This paper addresses various aspects of the pancreas. Issues covered include its anatomy, functions, and its interaction with other endocrine organs. The paper also looks into effects, cure, prevention, and prevalence of type 1 diabetes, which is one of pancreatic disorders. The pancreas is a vital body organ that performs both endocrine and exocrine functions. Under its endocrine functions, the pancreas produces essential metabolic hormones, which include insulin and glucagon. The exocrine function leads to production of essential digestive enzymes. Any defect on the pancreas may compromise various body functions. Endocrine system: the Pancreas, Diseases of and function Anatomy The pancreas is long and irregular prismatic in appearance. Its right extremity, which is termed to as the head, connects to the main portion of the organ (body) through a neck. The left extremity of the pancreas tapers forming the tail portion of the organ. The pancreas is located transversely across the posterior wall of the abdomen, behind the epigastric and left hypochondriac regions. The length and weight of the pancreas varies from 12.2-15 cm and 60-100 grams respectively. The pancreas resembles the salivary glands in structure, but it is looser and softer in texture. Its main sections are the head, body, and tail (Tortora & Derrickson, 2008). Functions The pancreas acts as an endocrine as well as an exocrine organ in humans. Hormones present in blood together with the autonomic nervous play a role in regulating the secretory functions of the pancreas. Endocrine functions About 5% of the pancreas is responsible for the synthesis of essential hormones that regulate the body’s metabolism. The metabolic hormones are synthesized by a number of cells that clamp together like “islands” referred to as islets. The clamped cells are referred to as islets of Langerhan’s, and they are about 1 million in number, in adult pancreas. Four main cell types, α cells, β cells, δ cells, and PP cells are present within the islets. The mentioned cells play the role of releasing insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin hormones (Tortora & Derrickson, 2008). Insulin and glucagon are the main hormones released by the pancreas. The α cells secrete glucagon while β cells secrete insulin. The two hormones perform an essential role in the regulation of sugar levels present in blood and body cells. Energy is vital for the functioning of body organs. The main source of energy for body cells is from glucose, which is a sugar. Therefore, the body system must have a mechanism that ensures that glucose gets into body cells. The same mechanism should ensure that glucose is maintained at its optimum levels in the blood (Tortora & Derrickson, 2008). The pancreas forms part of this mechanism by releasing insulin, which helps in the translocation of glucose from blood into cells. Presence of sufficient glucose in cells provides enough energy required for the proper functioning of cells. On the other hand, in times of insufficient sugar in the blood, the pancreas responds by producing glucagon. The role of glucagon is to convert glycogen stored within liver cells into glucose. Conversion of glycogen into glucose covers the low blood glucose levels after which insulin is released to move the glucose into cells. Hormone somatostatin plays a role regulating the release of other hormones (Tortora & Derrickson, 2008). Exocrine function About 90% of the pancreas is responsible for the production of key digestive enzymes. The acinar cells present in the pancreas release the pancreatic digestive enzymes. Stimulation of the pancreas to release digestive enzymes is via the nervous system and body hormones. Enzymes released by the pancreas help in the digestion of proteins, fats, and carbohydrates. Breakdown of these nutrients helps in the assimilation of nutrients by the intestine. In addition, the acinar cells produce pancreatic juice, which provides optimum conditions for the functioning of pancreatic enzymes. Pancreatic enzymes include pancreatic proteases (trypsin and chymotrypsin), pancreatic amylase, and pancreatic lipase (Tortora & Derrickson, 2008). Presence of food in the stomach leads to the generation of electrical signals that run through the nervous system to the pancreas. The signals stimulate the pancreas to release digestive enzymes into the pancreatic juice. Released enzymes drain through tiny ducts that later join to form the pancreatic duct. Once in the pancreatic duct, the digestive enzymes are drained into the duodenum. The most important thing to note is that pancreatic enzymes are released in their inactive form. This helps to protect the pancreas against auto digestion, but they get activated once they get into the intestines (Tortora & Derrickson, 2008). The pancreas can be prone to certain defects that can compromise its functions. Therefore, any damage on the functional units situated within the pancreas may result to a medical disorder that is difficult to correct. Diabetes is one such medical disorder that arises when the endocrine function of the pancreas is compromised due to damage on the islet of Langerhan’s. As already stated, the pancreas forms part of the body mechanism that regulates blood sugar levels. Therefore, regulation of sugar becomes a challenge once the islets of Langerhan’s are damaged leading to diabetes (Tortora & Derrickson, 2008). Type 1 diabetes This is a medical disorder that develops after the immune system attacks the β cells that secrete insulin. The body’s immune system protects against infections, but in rare cases it turns against its own body organs. Therefore, type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease. Damage on β cells results to total deficiency of insulin. Secondary diabetes is also a type of diabetes that leads to deficiency of insulin. In secondary diabetes, damage on β cells is not as a result of attacks by the immune system, but rather due to factors such as cystic fibrosis (Tortora & Derrickson, 2008). The most notable thing in persons suffering from type 1 diabetes is the high level of sugar in the blood. In situations of insufficient glucose within body cells, the body opts to source its energy from alternative sources in order to keep body functions running. Presence of high levels of blood sugar is characterized by the following: Dehydration: High blood glucose levels results to increased urination due to the increased need to clear glucose from the blood. As the kidneys are purifying blood, excess glucose in the blood causes more water to be drawn from blood. As a result of this, urination is frequent, excess water is lost leading to dehydration. Weight loss: In situations of type 1 diabetes, there is a lot of tissue wastage due to body’s metabolic reactions on muscles and adipose tissues. In addition, excessive loss of glucose decreases the level of calories available for deposit under body tissues. Diabetic ketoacidosis: This condition occurs when the body breaks down fat cells as a way of compensating for the lost glucose. Break down of fats produces ketones, which can be termed as acidic in nature. When fat breakdown is in excess, there is an increased level of ketone bodies in circulation, leading to an increase in blood acidity. Presence of high levels of blood ketones, sugar, and less water in the blood causes ketoacidosis, which can be life threatening. Body damage: Over time, symptoms associated with type 1 diabetes cause extensive damage to the body organs. Examples of medical conditions that may follow later include heart attack and stroke. Type 2 diabetes Type 2 is also known as noninsulin-dependent diabetes. Statistics rank it as the leading form of diabetes compared to type 1diabetes. Type 2 occurs as a result of the way the body synthesizes or utilizes insulin. With regard to the pancreas, type 2 diabetes can arise as a result of the inability of the pancreas to release sufficient insulin. Absence of sufficient insulin in blood produces similar symptoms to those present in type 1 diabetes (Tortora & Derrickson, 2008). Treatment Different approaches are available to help in the management and treatment of the two types of diabetes. Management and treatment of type 1 diabetes requires strict use of synthetic insulin, proper diet, frequent exercise and self-monitoring of blood glucose levels. Management may also force the patient to abandon habits such as smoking and use of alcohol. Management and treatment of type 2 diabetes may not require the use of insulin injections, but other medications may be used. Other remedies include diet and weight control, regular exercises and abandoning habits such as smoking (Tortora & Derrickson, 2008). Prevention Type 1diabetes does not have any prevention measures in place. Type 2 diabetes can be prevented through maintaining a healthy body weight and regular exercises. Prevalence of diabetes in America Statistics released in 2011 revealed that 8.3% (25.8) children and adults in America have diabetes. Persons under 20 years of age who had diabetes represented 0.26% of that age group. Those figures implied that 1 in 400 adolescents and children were diabetic. Persons over 20 years with diabetes were 11.3% of the total population under that age group. In persons aged 65 years and over, 26.6% of the total population under that age group had diabetes. Prevalence of diabetes based on race for persons aged 20 years and over revealed that 7.1% of non-Hispanic whites, 8.4% of Asian Americans, 12.6% of non-Hispanic black, and 11.8% of Hispanics were diabetic. Prevalence among Hispanics was 7.6% for Cubans, 13.3% for Mexican Americans, and 13.8% for Puerto Ricans. The paper has clearly outlined the anatomy and the dual functions of the pancreas. Damage on the pancreas either by the immune system, or other factors causes serious medical complications such as diabetes. Study based evidence indicate that there is a high prevalence of diabetes in America across all ages and races. References Tortora,G. & Derrickson, H. (2008). Principles of Anatomy and Physiology. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Read More