Reproduction of Humans and Animals using Artificial Methods - Essay Example

Name: Tutor: Course: Date: Reproduction of humans and animals using artificial methods like IVF and embryo transplantation Introduction IVF (In Vitro Fertilization) refers to the artificial conception of test-tube offspring that are fertilized in a laboratory. After the fertilization the embryo is implanted into a uterus of a female or is kept in an incubator. The embryo can also be preserved in nitrogen or other forms of preservatives.The technique of IVF was developed in the UK by some doctors where the first test-tube baby was called Louise Brown ad s produced in 1975. The second IVF to produce a baby was in India in 1978 and the baby was called ‘Durga.’ There were however a lot public outcry on the moral stand of this technique in producing test-tube babies. Besides the moral challenges, IVF has developed to become a method of treating infertility. The first successful IVF in US happened in 1981 and produced a baby called Elizabeth Carr. Since then IVF has become very popular across the world with 1% of all births being conceived via IVF. So far more that 200,000 births in US have been through IVF.IVF is done in specific cases that include; women who have blocked fallopian tubes, some ovulation problems, seminal problems in men, some degree of infertility cases, and the presence of seminal antibodies in women. The steps involved in the IVF procedure are; the stimulation of ovaries through some hormonal injections in order to produce multiple eggs. The response is then monitored by use of ultrasound scans and series of blood tests. The egg is then retrieved from the ovary using a needle. Fertilization of the egg is then done in a laboratory and it is followed by the transfer of the embryo into the uterus of a woman. Blood tests are then performed two weeks after the embryo transfer to check nay establishment of pregnancy. If the process is successful, embryos implant in the uterus, and pregnancy occurs. With the frequent use in technology in assisting pregnancies, many families will be able to achieve their dream of having children. It is important for the concerned persons to consider the legal repercussions of any medical decision they make. They should make arrangements on how the infants born will be legally recognized as theirs and hence avoid any future uncertainty. The Patenting of DNA in Humans and Animals DNA products are considered to be patentable when they are isolated, purified and at times modified to have a unique form in nature. In US the patentability of DNA products is determined by the Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) that is situated in the Department of Commerce (Walsh 26). DNA-related patents are authorized by USPTO, the European Patent Office or by the Japanese Patent Office.For the patenting of human and animal genes the inventor must be able to classify the novel genetic sequences, the specification of the genetic sequence must also be done. It is also a requirement to specify how the product functions in nature and how it can be used (Walsh 29). In 1999 the USPTO issued stiffer regulations concerning the usefulness of a gene product. It was required that gene fragments must be presented before they are considered patentable. The process of patenting genes is an expensive affair to a researcher especially the isolating and categorizing of gene and gene products. Patenting is important because protects inventions by granting the owners the right to exclude others from using or selling their gene inventions for a duration of around 20 years from the time of application. To get a patent, an investor is supposed to fully disclose the invention so as to get exclusive rights over the invented product. Before 1980 life forms in US were not patentable since they were considered to be part of nature (Roof 124). This however changed during the Diamond v. Chakrabarty case where the Supreme Court ruled that genetically engineered bacteria were patentable because they did not exist naturally in nature. Chakrabarty had been sued for modifying bacteria to produce a microbe that could be used in oil-dissolving.Since that ruling many patents have been issued for whole genes and even for gene fragments. The Patent Office has so far developed regulations on how to handle gene fragments since they may lack a known function. Gene patenting also rewards researchers on their inventions and discoveries. The patent also protects the investor against unscrupulous competitors who may be willing to sell or use the discovered genetic products without a license or permission from the investor (Resnik 86). Duplication of research is also prevented as one must research gene products that had not been researched on and hence promotes research on new fields. With the patenting of human and animal genes, there is no secrecy in research and this benefits new researchers as they are able to learn new inventions. Human and Animal Cloning The term cloning is used by scientists to refer to many processes that are used to make copies of biological material such as gene, cell, a plant or an animal. Through cloning of genes treatments for such diseases as diabetes and hemophilia have been developed (Weiss 2). A human embryo produced through cloning is done via a process somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT).During the SCNT, the nucleus of an egg is removed and then replaced with a nucleus removed from a mature body cell such as a skin. In the cloning process, an embryo is formed without any sexual reproduction where joining of egg and sperm is involved. The possibility of human cloning gained momentum in 1997 when there was an announcement that scientists in Scotland had succeeded in using SCNT in 1996 to produced the first cloned mammal, a dolly sheep. This was done by removing a nucleus from a sheep egg and then replacing it with a mammary gland cell from a mature sheep. The embryo that was formed was later transferred to the uterus of a surrogate sheep. More than 277 embryos were transferred but only one lamb was produced (Roof 133). The analysis of the genetic material of the lamb that was born indicated that it was derived from the sheep mammary cell. The dolly lamb produced through cloning died at the age of six year. Scientists attributed the death to the fact that the lamb was raised indoors unlike other pastured sheep that can live for up to twelve years. Scientists have since been able to produce other cloned animals using SCNT such as goats, cats, cows, horses, pigs, mouse, and rabbit. The procedure is however not very efficient as in most times it results in animals that have abnormal development. Cloning is expected to develop in future where it shall be used in the improvement of livestock and agricultural practices. In 2004, scientists in South Korea made an announcement that they had performed the first isolation of stem cells from a cloned human embryo. In 2005, the same team of scientists said they had managed to make cloning more efficient by use of cells from patients with ailments such as diabetes and spinal chord injury. They hoped to provide treatments for these ailments by use of patient-matched cells (Cibelli 28). The team attributed their success to the use of fresh eggs from younger women than getting eggs from older women who could be having fertility problems. It was later reported that scientists violated some ethical standards by donating their own eggs for the experiments and then receiving payments for it. Those accusations were major blow to the collaboration that had been planned between Korean Scientists, and SNU scientists from US and UK. Scientists from UK and US continue carrying out experiments on cloning of humans and animals. In UK, scientists who carry out cloning experiments are regulated by the Human Fertilization and Embryology Authority (HFEA). Some scientists from UK reported some success in isolating stem cells from a cloned human embryo (Horward 5). Scientists at the Harvard Stem Cell Institute are working hard to produce cloned human embryos to assist in the studies of juvenile diabetes, Parkinson’s disease and other identified diseases. On November 2005, the Advanced Cell Technology (ACT) of Massachusetts announced a major breakthrough by creating human embryos that were produced through cloning. The ACT claimed to have used two techniques of SCNT and parthenogenesis to produce human embryos (Cibelli 31). Eggs had been obtained from seven women who were paid $5,000 each as appreciation. The nucleus from the eggs was replaced with nucleus from other adult cells. The nucleus that was replaced with nucleus from skin cells failed to divide while the division from the nucleus from cumulus cells also stopped at some point. In the parthenogenesis process, egg cells are treated with certain chemicals that cause them to divide without any use of sperm for fertilization (Marshal 669). More than 23 human eggs were exposed to chemicals by ACT but none of the embryos was able to produce stem cells resulting to the suspension of all the cloning experiments by ACT in 2004. Genetic Screening in Humans Genetic screening is the search of populations for persons with particular genotype or symptomatic diseases (Carrick 6). The main aim of genetic screening is to identify individuals whose genotype places them or their offspring at a risk of acquiring a genetic disease.Genetic screening can therefore be used for research purposes, reproductive purposes, surveillance, and for the registration of genetic diseases and disabilities. There are two types of genetic screening; one of them involves the detection of the individuals who have their own health threatened where presymptomatic screening is administered. The second type involves the detection of healthy individuals whose genes threaten the future of their offspring (Murray 10). This type of screening is known as carrier screening. Generally genetic screening includes parental screening, carrier screening, forensic screening, and susceptibility screening.Parental screening identifies whether a fetus is at risk of various genetic diseases and was discovered in 1966. Since its discovery, the numbers of genetic disorders that can be tested using this method have increased tremendously. The preimplantation testing of embryos has ensured that only embryos that are free from genetic disorders are allowed in the uterus. Newborn babies are screened by analyzing their blood tissues to find out whether there could be some genetic diseases that could be intervened early to avoid serious medical problems in future. The practice of newborn screening started in 1960s and was used for testing newborns for phenylketonuria (PKU), which was a rare and deadly metabolic disease (Murray 15). Two other forms of newborn screening included the testing of the African American infants for the sickle cell anemia and Ashkenazic Jews for the Tay-Sachs disease. The main advantage of this type of genetic screening is that it is economical and can be relied upon to detect a disease early enough to initiate treatment and hence prevent any permanent future damage or even death. Carrier screening is used in identifying persons with a genetic or chromosome abnormality that may affect the individual or the offspring. The testing of blood tissue may show the existence of changes in DNA that can be associated with inherited diseases in asymptomatic persons (Horward 13). Screening tests for such diseases as cystic fibrosis, hemophilia, Huntington’s diseases, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, and neurofibromatosis have also been developed. The careening of Tay-Sachs has also reduced the rated of the number of infants born with this disease in US. Forensic screening is another form of genetic screening that discovers the linkage between crime suspects and evidence collected in crime scenes. Advanced technologies are used to identify genetic differences in humans and hence assist in clearing the innocent and convicting the guilty individuals in crime. DNA is unique and therefore no confusion is expected during the screening if it is administered by experts.Susceptibility screening is the screening done on selected populations to assess genetic vulnerability to environmental hazards. This screening is used by companies to identify workers who may be vulnerable to toxic chemicals that may cause future disabilities (Roger 13). In 1986 it was reported in New York Times Magazine that more than 400,000 workers had become disabled by occupational illnesses because they were genetically susceptible since their workers were not affected.One of the commonly used genetic screenings in the medical field is the family screening. Factors that affect the use of any form of genetic screening include the availability of qualified personnel, availability of funds, stigmatization, and the effectiveness of any of the methods. Works Cited Marshal, Eliot. DNA Studies Challenge the Meaning of Race. Science. 282(5389), pp. 654-655. Carrick, Milmore. Genetic testing and genetic screening. Retrieved on 31/03/11 from, http://www.ncgr.org/ Horward, Markel. Final Report of the Task Force on Genetic Testing. Retrieved on 31/03/11 from, http://www.nhhttp://www.nhgri.nih.gov/ELSI/TFGT_final/ gri.nih.gov/ELSI/TFGT_final/ Murray, Roberts. Genetic Screening and counseling. Retrieved on 31/03/11 from, http://www.gaucher.org.uk/genetic.htm Roger, Martins. Ethical, Legal, and Social Issues (ELSI). Retrieved on 31/03/11 from, http://www.ornl.gov/TechResources/Human_Genome/resource/elsi.html Cibelli, J. “Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer in Humans: Pronuclear and Early Embryonic Development. Journal of Regenerative Medicine. Vol.2(452). Nov. 26, 2001, pp. 25-31. Weiss, R. “ Legal Barriers to Human Cloning May Not Hold Up. Washington Post. May 23rd, 2001, pp. A1. Coleman, Stephen. The ethics of artificial uteruses: implications for reproduction. New York: Ashgate Publishing, 2004. Resnik, David. Owning the genome: a moral analysis of DNA Patenting. London: SUNY Press, 2007. Roof, Judith. The Poetics of DNA. Minnesota: Minnesota Press, 2007. Walsh, Gary. Biopharmaceuticals: biochemistry and biotechnology. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 2003. Read More