Motivation in the Modern Business World - Coursework Example

? Organizational behaviour- Motivation Scenario There has been extensive research and debate over the years in regards to understanding and attempting to explain the nature of motivation. Motivation is one of the earliest concerns of organisational behaviour and links between a motivated workforce and increased performance led managers to strive toward ‘motivating’ their workforces in an attempt to reduce alienation (Wilson & Rosenfeld, 1990). It is fair to assume that every organisation wants to have committed employees. Table of contents Topic Page No. 1. Introduction 4 2. Motivation in organisational behaviour and its definition 4 2.1 Types of motivation 5 2.2 Theories of motivation 6 3. Theoretical Implications of motivation for management 9 3.1 Motivation and performance: 10 3.2 Motivation and commitment 11 3.3 Motivation and organisational performance 13 4. Organisational contribution to employee motivation 14 4.1 Role of Organisational culture 14 4.2 Role of organisational systems 14 4.3 Role of leadership 16 5 Current issues and recommendations: 18 6 Conclusions 19 References Appendices Abstract This report explores the role of motivation on organizational behaviour. This is accomplished by understanding the concept of motivation and its implications on organization. A brief understanding of the two types, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation has been obtained. Different motivational theories categorized under content and process theories have been explored. Implications of motivational theories on various management aspects such as employee performance, employee commitment, and organisational performance have been explored by applying content and process theories through specific case studies obtained from the literature. Further, role of organizational aspects such as organizational culture, systems and leadership on employee motivation have been studied. At the end, contemporary issues in management and their impact on employee motivation has been briefly evaluated. The report concludes with recommendations for contemporary challenges and the overall impact of application of motivation theories in organizational context. 1. Introduction Organisational behavior encompasses all behavioral aspects that include all individual and group dynamics that constantly interact with each other and consequently result in specific outcomes that can have positive and/or negative impact on the individuals as well as organisations. Considering this, workplace motivation has been extensively studied in the present context beginning with its definition and including types and theories of motivation. This report outlines various theories of motivation and their implications on employees. In the process, impact of motivation on individual performance, organisational performance, and employee commitment has been reviewed by applying few case study examples. Further, role of organisational systems, culture, and leadership have been critically assessed in creating workplace motivation for employees. 2. Motivation in organisational behaviour and its definition Organisational behavior considers people’s behavior in the organisation, circumstances that create specific behavior, impact of people’s behavior on organisation, groups, and individuals. Organisations are major part of sociological entities that shape the societies, economies and relationships between different companies, and countries. The extent of such impact is dependent upon their performance, which is determined by their systems, processes, technology, and most importantly employee motivation. Wilson and Rosenfeld (1990) explain that motivation is one of the earliest concerns of organisational behaviour and links between a motivated workforce and increased performance led managers to strive toward ‘motivating’ their workforces in an attempt to reduce alienation. Therefore, employee motivation is regarded as one of the key elements of organisational behavior. Motivation is defined as the process of arousing and sustaining goal-directed behavior (Nelson & Quick, 2007; p.122). Human behavior from motivation perspective has been researched and studied immensely, which has resulted in proposition for numerous motivational theories. All these theories only point to the fact that motivational factors for individuals are different and vary with situations. Yet, from psychology perspective, motivation is regarded as unchangeable force behind a person’s choice to act or refrain from action (Muzio, Fisher & Thomas, 2008, p.46). Arnold et al (1991) have identified three components to human motivation, namely, direction, effort and persistence (Armstrong, 2009; p.317). 2.1 Types of motivation In organisational contexts, motivation is regarded to be of two types namely intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation refers to an inherent likeness to perform a task or achieve a goal based on the value that the individual attaches to the specific task or goal. Individuals’ intrinsic motivation is activated when they regard their work as interesting, challenging, and important. Moreover, extent of autonomy, opportunity and scope to advance and use their skills determine the degree of intrinsic motivation. Armstrong (2009) explains that individuals’ intrinsic motivation can be enhanced when the job role or design is matched with individuals’ skills and competencies. Intrinsic motivation is also driven by the level of interest in the job or task. Therefore, intrinsic motivation drives voluntary actions. Intrinsic motivation is of three types, i.e. to know, to accomplish things and to experience stimulation. Intrinsic motivation to know is a result of the yearning to explore, learn, curiosity, and understand. Intrinsic motivation to accomplish encompasses motivation to master tasks, achieve efficiency, and drive results. This is a psychological paradigm possessed by individuals. The drive to experience stimulation is purely based on liking towards sensory stimulations such as pleasure, aesthetic experiences, and fun (Pelletier et al, 1995). From organisational context, intrinsic motivation is derived from job satisfaction, compliance with standards, and achievement of personal goals. Contrary to this, extrinsic motivation, as Deci (1975) explains, refers to behaviors that are engaged in as a means to an end and not for their own sake (cited in Pelletier et al, 1995; p.37). From this perspective, organisations tend to give incentives, rewards, increased pay, promotions, and/or punishments to individuals. Extrinsic motivation is short-term and is accomplished upon receipt of indirect or instrumental needs. Frey and Osterloh (2002) assert that it is difficult to ascertain difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation because an intrinsic motivation is always accompanied by extrinsic factor and vice versa. 2.2 Theories of motivation Numerous studies on motivation have given rise to many theories of motivation. These theories are broadly classified into content and process theories of motivation. Content theories or the needs theories explain the factors that drive specific desirable behavior such as excitement, energy and initiation. Content theories include Maslow’s theory of hierarchy of needs, Alderfer’s ERG theory, Herzberg’s two-factor theory, and McClelland’s 3-needs theory (Borkowski, 2010). A few process theories include expectancy theory, equity theory, satisfaction-performance theory, goal-setting theory and reinforcement theory. The most renowned content/needs theory is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, which proposes that motivation of human behaviour corresponds to the level of satisfaction. This means, the first order needs have to be satisfied in order for human being to be motivated by the next order needs. Components of this model, from lowest to the highest are in the order, physical needs, safety and security needs, social needs of love and belonging, esteem needs of respect and confidence, and finally self-actualization needs of knowledge and understanding. Quite opposite in order, Alderfer’s ERG theory postulates that individuals seek to satisfy higher order needs first. According to this theory, Growth needs related to individuals intrinsic need for creativity, learning and development are sought before Relatedness with respect to development of inter-relationships and Existence referring to the basic psychological and material needs. Borkowski (2010) relates Mother Teresa’s motivation with ERG Theory that placed spiritual needs before any basic needs in her endeavour to serve the needy. This theory provides significant perspective for managers in terms of the frustration-regression behavior wherein individuals tend to regress to lower-level need when higher-level needs remain unmet. In Herzberg’s theory, the two factors include motivation and hygiene. Motivational factors related to job satisfaction include achievement, recognition, work, responsibility and advancement. The hygiene factors that are necessary to avoid dissatisfaction include company policies, administrative policies supervision, salary, interpersonal relations, and working conditions. McClelland’s 3-needs theory identifies achievement, power and affiliation as the three motivational needs. Many times it has been argued that all the content theories put for the same or similar propositions the same. All these theories highlight all possible worker needs and thus have important suggestions for human resources management. The expectancy theory attributes motivational level of employees to their effort to perform a task that will produce a specific outcome; further, the way the individual values this outcome. These attributes are explained as expectancy, instrumentality and valence by Vroom (1964) in this theory. According to this theory, motivation is a product of these elements (M=VxIxE). Valence (V) refers to the value of an outcome that an individual places on various outcomes of their jobs like pay, incentives, interest in the work, relationships, etc. If an individual values relationships, then he/she would be happy to work where relationships are strong and valued. Instrumentality (I) refers to an employee’s opinion or belief about the extent of efforts required to achieve an outcome. Employees tend to put in efforts to perform a specific job only if they believe that their efforts would result in outcomes they value. The third component, Expectancy (E) refers to the employees’ perception about the extent to which his/her effort will result in certain level of job performance. Expectancy refers to level of confidence individuals possess about a specific action or job (George & Jones, 2008). Equity theory explains the way people regard fairness of treatment with respect to others. They judge fairness in terms of pay, treatment, others behavior etc. this theory postulates that people tend to perceive treatment received as equal to others if the outcomes of their effort is similar to that of others. This theory is thoroughly applicable in case of pay packages among people doing the same work and with similar qualifications. In Daft’s (2007, p.530) words, ‘a state of equity exists whenever the ratio of one person’s outcomes to inputs equals the ratio of another’s outcomes to inputs.’ Inequity in ratio of outcomes to inputs can result in dissatisfaction. Perceptions of equity and inequity result from referencing to treatment received by others such as colleagues, co-workers, previous jobs, other employers, and even similar situations. Satisfaction-performance theory proposed by Porter and Lawler (1968) is quite opposite to the Expectancy Theory, in which Porter and Lawler postulated that performance resulted in satisfaction rather than satisfaction resulting in performance. The components of this theory include performance, rewards attached to performance, and the perceived equitability of the rewards (Borkowski, 2010). Goal-setting theory is considered to be most practical and can be employed successfully at any level and in any function. Developed by Locke and Latham, goal-setting theory proposes that managers can increase motivation by setting specific challenging goals that are accepted as valid by subordinates, then helping people track their progress toward goal achievement by providing timely feedback (as cited in Daft, 2007, p.534). This theory is based on four critical components, namely, goal specificity, goal difficulty, goal acceptance, and feedback. Reinforcement theory of motivation focuses on modification of behavioral aspects that can lead to achievement of desired goals. According to this concept, motivation can be achieved by behavior modification, positive reinforcement, and/or negative reinforcement (Daft, 2007). Reinforcement can be scheduled based on time and/or outcome, which include continuous, fixed-schedule, variable-schedule variable interval, fixed ratio or variable ratio. 3. Theoretical Implications of motivation for management The content theories highlight a variety of possible motivational needs of employees, which indicates that an ideal job design would be an impossible task to achieve. Though HRM strives to create jobs that are enriching and involving, these jobs may not be the needs of all employees. Moreover, all jobs cannot be made equally enriching and/or involving. This has given rise to the ‘fit’ for job concept in HRM. Secondly, content theories propose the need for tailoring compensation schemes to suit different individual needs. This has thus given rice the incentive schemes, which motivate individuals to achieve greater productivity and/or quality in performance (Aswathappa, 2007). Process theories highlight different methods of motivating employees. major part of these theories focus on extrinsic motivational needs, which eventually dominate the intrinsic needs. Process theories focus on temporary satisfaction or motivation, which can eventually harm quality of work. Moreover, the motivational needs are usually of lower level and do not reflect exact behavior most of the times. 3.1 Motivation and performance: Individuals’ values attached to a specific task or goal is a key motivating factor, as proposed by the expectancy theory. In Joan’s case (see appendix 3), she values education because of the inspiration she got from her family. The extent of value attached to the achievement of higher education will motivate her to work harder in order to achieve the promotion to senior lecturer. Joan is also aware of the path that needs to be taken in order to achieve her goal, she will further be motivated to achieve the desired goal (vanAswagen et al, 2009). In the same manner, employees will be motivated to perform if they are aware of what needs to be achieved and if they possess the necessary skills and competencies. In addition to goal and role clarity, their values should be in sync with the outcomes attached with their action. Assessing individual values attached to a specific task or its outcome is extremely difficult; even if the values are assessed, enhancing the level of value attached is extremely difficult. Considering Joan’s case, if the value attached to achieving higher education was less than promotion, then she would not be motivated enough to put in extreme efforts like achieving a doctorate, three accredited articles and two papers at international conferences. Instead, she would probably choose other means of achieving a promotion like looking at other opportunities. 3.2 Motivation and commitment Individuals’ motivation is higher when situations that promote commitment to job are higher. This can be explained on the basis of McClelland’s 3-needs theory. As Aswathappa states, ‘employees with high achievement needs thrive on work that is challenging, satisfying, stimulating and complex. They welcome autonomy, variety, and frequent feedback from supervisors. They respond better to considerate supervision than to impersonal, high-pressure supervision and look to the workplace and co-workers for social satisfaction” (2007; p.364). Improving and sustaining employee commitment are possible through effective hygiene factors, as explained by Herzberg’s theory. This can be achieved by implementing fair systems in distributing benefits and rewards and implementation of procedural justice. Motivation enhances commitment and vice versa when systems and procedures are effective and transparent. These also help in removing sources of demotivation and treating people fairly, as postulated in the Equity theory. Expectancy theory provides sufficient insight into understanding employee behaviour, which is reflected in their commitment towards their jobs (Borkowski, 2010). This theory assumes that individuals tend to assess the costs and benefits in choosing specific behavior. Lack of commitment indicates the desire to avoid or indifference towards the expected outcomes. Newsom (1990) has highlighted nine criteria for motivation based on Expectancy theory, which include challenge, criteria (related to job), compensation, capability, confidence, credibility, consistency, cost and communication (Borkowski, 2010). Applying this to Joan’s case (appendix 3), her commitment to work hard is derived from her motivation to achieve the promotion. The expectancy connected with the promotion include her awareness of the effort required, her skills and capabilities to accomplish the tasks required, her confidence, and the cost in terms of duration and effort. Instrumentality that encourages Joan towards the commitment to achieve the outcome she values includes the outcome itself, the confidence in the management that she will be given the promotion and fair treatment like others. Moreover, clear criteria put forward to Joan in relation to the promotion and an understanding of good performance further enhance her commitment towards achieving the valued outcome. Individuals expect fairness in returns and treatment for the work or efforts put in. Any deviation in this could lead to dissatisfaction. Considering the Equity theory, Tyler and Bies (1990) have suggested five standards that can help managers understand subordinates’ perceptions of equity. Firstly, employees expect consideration of their viewpoints from their superiors. Secondly, they expect an unbiased treatment by their managers. Thirdly, employees are happier when treatment is same for all employees during similar situations. Fourth, they expect timely feedback for their performance or after a critical discussion. Lastly, employees expect adequate explanation for managers’ actions, behaviors and/or decisions related to various aspects of work and their (employees’) growth and development. These implications help in avoiding demotivating situations (Makin, Cooper & Cox, 1996). 3.3 Motivation and organisational performance Herzberg’s theory has been criticized due to its limited applicability and reliability. In case of Jan job (see appendix 2), his motivators include his responsibility and power in the job (Ekerman, 2006). The hygiene factors that are the cause for his dissatisfaction include his pay package and workplace environment that is causing much dissatisfaction in his workers and thus to himself. In this case, though Jan will be motivated by his job role and authority, the hygiene factors can cause him much dissatisfaction which would further lower his performance as well as commitment in due course. However, implementing Herzberg’s two-factor theory has had direct influence on employee motivation and commitment in many companies and has been embedded into organisational practices and policies. HRM policies that encourage learning and development, performance management practices such as performance appraisals linked to pay hike; providing safe and secure working conditions etc are the hygienic factors that can be embedded into organisational policies. Another challenge with this theory is that it does not include situational ups-and-downs. Yet, this theory has offered much insight for managers to consider various motivating factors in an organisational setup (Aswathappa, 2007). This theory touches upon content factors, which in turn influences individuals’ behaviour. This theory has been the background for formation of the job design principle. 4. Organisational contribution to employee motivation 4.1 Role of Organisational culture The ERG theory has critical implications on organisational culture. For example, if employees do not get growth opportunities, which would their higher-level needs, then they tend to look for strengthening relationships; and if organisational culture does not support social interaction, then their motivation would further get affected. As seen in Jennifer Smith’s case (see appendix 1), the support and encouragement given by her colleagues helped Jennifer gain interest in her work in spite of the disappointment she experienced in relation to her growth. This is possible when employees work in teams and also through organisational practices that foster interpersonal relationships with workers from other departments and so on. In the absence of opportunities to satisfy at least the lower-level needs, dissatisfaction related to achievement of higher-level needs would result in employees looking for opportunities outside the organisation for satisfying their needs (Borkowski, 2010). 4.2 Role of organisational systems Expectancy theory proposes that people are motivated to perform tasks that result in valued outcomes. Value-creating activities include activities or work that provides learning and growth, besides increased pay and strong interrelationships. Therefore, it becomes important for managers to understand what kind of learning or development that are valued by individuals. Abundancy of such activities, practices, policies can enhance motivation significantly because access to valued outcomes will be supported by improved performance and increased commitment. However, this can only be theoretically explained, with minimal practical implications because it is extremely rare for managers to list expected outcomes out of a behaviour and assess values attached to these outcomes. Moreover, the expectancy theory is applicable to voluntary behaviours (Mullins, 2005). These issues are countered by Porter and Lawler’s model through satisfaction-performance theory. Management policies and practices have a critical role in motivation based on equity. Considering the case of conservative usage of natural resources, which all individuals may acknowledge, but very few actually accomplish. Explained on the basis of Equity theory, this is because of the sense of inequity, which people have in terms of usage of natural resources with respect to their usage in other parts of the world (Woods & West, 2010; p.169). In such cases, people can be motivated only by employing effective practices and policies that drive the achievement of desired goals. Moreover, to achieve such goals, goal-setting theory would be of great use as specific goals can be applied in achieving minimal usage of natural resources. These goals must be measurable and should be attached to specific outcome, like reward points or bonus points. However, understanding level of individuals, which corresponds to skill level, impacts the goal achievement. In a large setting, providing feedback becomes extremely difficult; to address this, further measures need to be adopted that will help in achieving the goals. These measures, usually in the form of negative reinforcement, like charges or fines for those exceeding the usage limit may be applicable. Reinforcement theory explains what kind of policies can enhance employee motivation or enforce employees to perform what is required to achieve organisational goals. For example, the hospital CEO’s case (appendix 4) explains that reinforcement is necessary to achieve better results in terms of profits and/or savings. In this case, fixed-interval and/or variable-interval reinforcement schedules will be equally beneficial. The former type might have issues with irregular performance, which can be countered by the latter type. Workplace design to enhance motivation emerged from Herzberg’s theory and focused on enriching jobs in order to foster satisfaction and motivation through intrinsic rewards. Herzberg’s vertical loading factors highlight intrinsic and extrinsic rewards through management actions (see appendix 5). Motivational theories focus on enhancing the three psychological states namely, experienced meangingfulness, experienced responsibility, and knowledge of results (Brooks, 2007, p.72). The five factors that facilitate achievement of these states include skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback from the job. 4.3 Role of Leadership In their article, Isaac, Zerbe and Pitt (2001) have argued that leaders have the challenge to identify all factors associated with the three elements, valence, instrumentality and expectancy for each and every individual, which is extremely challenging. For instance, leaders will have to be aware of every individual’s skill level for specific task, the amount of psychological, material and informational support that he/she may require. Psychological characteristics such as self-esteem and self-concept significantly impact an individual’s performance, and thus the outcome. Hence, leaders will have to be in constant connection with their followers so that they can provide all required support and encouragement that maintains/improves followers’ confidence. In addition, individuals’ goals differ according to their motivational needs; aligning these goals with organisational goals becomes the leader’s responsibility so that desired outcome is achieved without affecting individuals’ motivational level and also meeting their expectations. From a valence perspective, leaders should be able to assess how individuals value the desired and/or achieved outcomes; and leaders will have to strive to enhance these values through available rewards and recognition. With changes in individuals’ expectations and needs with time, individuals’ expectations related to organisational goals need to be revisited and/or revised. Taking the expectancy theory as the platform, Isaac et al.(2001) argue that if leaders can tackle these challenges, sustainable motivational levels can be achieved. Role of leadership is crucial in applying goal-setting theory to enhance motivation. Different objectives are set to achieve one goal. So, performance on each objective becomes necessary to achieve the ultimate goal. Therefore, leaders have to ensure goals are divided into appropriate objectives that are achievable and measurable. More often, goal-setting tends to focus on one objective and therefore compromises on other objective. For example, rush for productivity compromises quality of work. Moreover, individuals’ skills and competencies play a significant role in goal achievement. Skill enhancement becomes another objective for the leader. More than one goal can result in confusion and conflict as to which one is more important. Again skills for achieving one goal may not be sufficient for achieving other goals. Goal setting process also impacts achievement of the goals. If goals are set without involving the people that are mean to achieve the goals, then goal acceptance and commitment can be problematic. Moreover, it might be difficult for individuals to achieve all goals unless these goals are valued or produce valued outcomes, as explained by expectancy theory. Leadership’s role in inspiring people to achieve organisational goals and identifying individuals’ values in relation to organisational goals is challenging. Also, leadership style that is used in inspiring individuals to achieve certain goals is critical to goal achievement. Applying Hershey and Blanchard’s situational leadership concept to goal achievement, it can be proposed that individuals need to be motivated differently in different situations and this depends upon the individuals’ developmental level (McShane, Glinow & Sharma, 2008). For instance, individuals that are new to the task need to trained and constantly monitored and provided feedback; for those that are experienced, they need to be given additional responsibilities and appreciated for achieving the goals. Mismatch in this dealing can critically affect individual motivation, commitment and therefore performance. 5 Current issues and recommendations: The most influencing factor on individual motivation is organisational change. Organisational change is caused by many reasons as a response to external and internal environmental issues, competition, globalization, employee expectations etc. In response to these factors, organisations need to change their policies, practices, structures and systems in order to sustain their business. These changes invariably affect employee motivation because of disturbances caused to their sense of security, position, understanding etc. Hence, organisational change is the most challenging aspect of workplace motivation. Secondly, as a consequence to changing nature of businesses and organisations, knowledge working has become the norm in contemporary workplace. With it knowledge work brings other challenges such as employee turnover, competition, advancement in technology and systems and increased costs for running organisations. These challenges are affecting employee motivation through money, job design, occupational health, and work-life balance. Thirdly, money, as always, continues to be one of the driving forces of employee motivation. Though there are other factors of motivation, money still remains the primary source. This is because of changing economics and finances, competition and the struggle to survive in the best possible manner. 6 Conclusions In conclusion, motivation is a critical and complex behavioural aspect that has been explained on the basis of various competing theories and studies. Employee motivation provides an important implication for managers to understand what behaviours affect employee performance. As identified, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation types have equal bearing on employee behaviour, which necessitate distinct managerial and/or organisational interventions in order to achieve desired goals. Contemporary issues such as change, knowledge work, money, economic factors and competition pose challenges to motivation employees’ intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Yet, organisations continue to strive to motivate their workforce in many ways. Organisations’ struggle to enhance commitment through employee motivation can only be partially possible because of varied needs of all individuals, as explained by content theories. Hence, organisations adopt other methods to reinforce the desired behaviour that would help in goal achievement by adopting process theories. If organisations are successful in achieving their goals, it does not really mean their employees are motivated. Employees perform to achieve the tasks because of extrinsic factors that may not be motivated by their intrinsic needs and vice versa. However, such driving forces cannot be beneficial for the individuals and organisations in the long run; yet, it is very difficult for managers to assess individuals’ actual motivating factors. In conclusion, motivation theories can only be used as a base to understand individuals’ behaviour to an extent, but no one theory can be employed as the best medium to achieve motivation. References Armstrong, M. 2009. Armstrong's handbook of human resource management practice. 11th edn. Kogan Page Publishers, London. Aswathappa, K. 2007. Human resources management and personnel management. 4th edn. TataMcGrawHIll, New Delhi. 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Available from, http://books.google.co.in/books?id=D9gETokeQxYC&pg=PA122&dq=motivation+organizational+behavior'&hl=en&ei=n9OaTYfdHs_xrQfFptX7Bg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=8&ved=0CFEQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=motivation%20organizational%20behavior'&f=false (Accessed 1 April 2011). Pelletier, L.G et al. 1995. Toward a new measure of intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation in sports: The sport motivation scale (SMS). Journal of sport and exercise psychology. 17: 35-53. Available from http://www.er.uqam.ca/nobel/r26710/LRCS/papers/72.pdf (Accessed April 4, 2011). Van Aswagen, S et al. 2009. Burning issues. In Human resource management: Fresh perspectives. Pearson Education: South Africa (pp: 291-316.). Available from, http://books.google.co.in/books?id=dbB3OOBY7qUC&pg=PA297&dq=case+study+expectancy+theory&hl=en&ei=-GKcTem_K8j5rAfS6cGMCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CEgQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=case%20study%20expectancy%20theory&f=false (Accessed 2 April 2011). Wilson, D.C and Rosenfeld, R.H. 1990. Managing organizations: Text, readings, and cases. McGrawHill, London. Woods, S and West, M.A. 2010. The Psychology of Work and Organizations. Cengage Learning EMEA, Hampshire. Appendices Appendix 1 Source: adopted from Borkowski, 2010, p.111. Appendix 2 Source: Ekerman, 2006. p.201. Appendix 3 Source: Van Aswagen et al. 2009. p.298. Appendix 4 Source: Borkowski, 2010, p. 140. Appendix 5 Source: Brooks, 2007; p. 72. Read More