Biological and Psychological Explanations of Crime - Research Paper Example

? and number Reflection on Crime submitted The final reflective paper aims to proffer issues related to three specific topics, to wit: (1) the study of crime; (2) biological and psychological explanations of crime; and finally, (3) deterrence, incapacitation, retribution and rehabilitation. Significant applications related to the issues would be discussed. Likewise, the discourse would address how one can apply what is learned from the topics towards becoming a more valuable member of society. Reflection on Crime The study of crime has continued to intrigue various professionals as to the nature, rationale and prevention that it continues to evolve until contemporary times. Various crime theories have emerged assuming diverse perspectives ranging from psychological, biological, sociological and even patterns of interconnected scientific explanations. Criminologists have remained vigilant in discovering innovative points of views that could link outcomes of criminal behavior to their root causes. In this regard, the current reflective paper aims to proffer issues related to three specific topics, to wit: (1) the study of crime; (2) biological and psychological explanations of crime; and finally, (3) deterrence, incapacitation, retribution and rehabilitation. Significant applications related to the issues would be discussed. Likewise, the discourse would address how one can apply what is learned from the topics towards becoming a more valuable member of society. The study ultimately aims to determine how theoretical concepts learned from the modules would contribute to improving the peace and order by deterring crimes in society through an individual’s proactive view. The Study of Crime A crime is a conduct forbidden by law for which punishment is prescribed. Thus, the ideas of crime and punishment are intimately connected. To commit a crime is to run the risk that punishment will be imposed. Diverse theories have tried to explain the origin of criminal behavior. In the article entitled Criminology: the study of crime and behavior, Aristotle identified poverty as “the parent of revolution and crime” (Criminology, n.d, par. 1) tracing the explanation to elements in the environment as contributory to the criminal behavior. The same discourse provided different criminology theories that were discussed in the modules, initially detailing the classical theory where “people choose to behave wrongly when they believe the benefits outweigh the costs” (Criminology, n.d, par. 5). Culen & Agnew (2002) have clearly illustrated variables and assumptions for theories of crime ranging from strain, routine, strain, control theories where factors as diverse as the facets of personalities and external influences attempt to provide meaning to their occurrences. Where poverty was identified by Aristotle providing the impetus for sociologists to examine both social and cultural forces that impinge on individuals to commit errant behavior, other distinct findings prove genetics and biological factors increase susceptibility to crimes. Theorists like Lombroso and Hoorten seek to find some patterns from individuals’ personal traits as evidence for stronger links to the occurrence of crime (Criminology, n.d, pars. 22 & 23). Aside from variables, assumptions, factors and the dominant groups of criminologists, psychologists and sociologists supporting these criminology theories, the study of crime also encompasses new professionals in the capacity of economists as interested in this field of endeavor. The study conducted by Bushway and Reuter (n.d.) emphasized a “focus on rational self-seeking behavior and analysis of the consequences of interactions among groups of actors that create equilibria in a system” (1). This just proves that the study of crimes is indeed a multidisciplinary approach that intrigues professionals from other fields to explain the rationale for their occurrence and existence despite sanctions and punishments prescribed by the legal system. Applications from this study were deemed to focus on areas such as the study of illegal markets (drug markets) and “application of formal economic theory to the study of the criminal justice system” (Bushway and Reuter, n.d, 65), among others. The potential applications in other career and professions are seen to encompass wider range of learning as the study of crime continues to bring new insights and concepts to expound on its intricate framework. Biological and Psychological Explanations of Crime The biological and psychological explanations of crime were rooted from the positivist school of thought that sought to uncover factors through the “use the scientific method and empirical data to aid in their understanding of crime” (Criminology, n.d, par. 9). Some of the most famous researchers and theories who delved into the study of biological factors were Lombroso (external appearance), Gall and Spurzheim (brain functions and parts), Goring (physical characteristics), and Wilson and Herrnstein (anatomical configurations) (Greek, 2005), among others. The biological supporters contend that abnormalities in genes contribute to the preponderance of criminal behavior. Even profiles of bullies were closely studied by Olweus attempting to discover patterns and generalizations of their violent behavior. A study of physique in relation to crime was closely reviewed by Ernst Kretschmer and William Sheldon where relevant findings reveal that there “is a greater number of violent criminals who correspond to the athletic type, while the asthenic are more likely to be involved in petty theft and fraud… (Also,) the pyknic tended toward crimes involving deception and fraud but were also sometimes involved in violent crimes” (Greek, 2005, par. 28). The influence of factors such as temperament and intelligence, though not necessarily classified as biological in nature, were found to comprise constitutional factors evaluated by Wilson and Herrnstein (Greek, 2005, par. 35). According to these authors, “there is some psychological trait, having a biological origin, that predisposes an individual to criminality--intelligence, personality, and psychopathology” (Greek, 2005, par. 36). Finally, mental disorders and deficiency were clearly linked to criminal behavior by theorists like Dugdale, Goddard, Freud, Alexander and Bowlby. Under the psychological explanation argued by Freud, for example, stated that “criminals suffer from enormous guilt, and perform criminal acts in order to get punished, which will temporarily relieve them of their guilt feelings” (Criminology, n.d, par. 48). Various psychological distress have been evaluated to determine their direct relationship and effect on violent behavior and are thereby published as patterns of generalizations that explain the rationale for crime using that point of view. Deterrence, Incapacitation, Retribution and Rehabilitation The theories of punishment were likewise equally challenging for criminologists and other professionals in the field of justice. Broom and Selznick (1977) define punishment as “the infliction of pain by official authorities as a form of condemnation or for the purpose of preventing offenses against legal rules” (420). Punishment is a way of communicating the gravity of the offense and the moral outrage of the community. Through any of the major approaches of issuing punishment, society ultimately attempts to deter the occurrence of criminal acts: deterrence, incapacitation, retribution and rehabilitation. These theories of punishment are based on ethical theories and moral codes of conduct. The theory of retribution, for instance, “holds that a criminal merits his just punishment because he has done something morally or socially evil. In some forms, the theory implies that the punishment should be proportionate to the harm done, rather than to the moral guilt of the criminal” (Punishment, 2011, par. 2). On the other hand, the ethics of utilitarianism focusing on actions that study the results in terms of according the greatest benefit for the greatest number provide the basis for the theory of deterrence which aims to prevent prospective criminal acts from being repeated. Previous course modules have discussed the theory of utilitarianism that “identifies ethical actions as those that maximize happiness and minimize pain” Souryal (2007, 3). Further, emphasis on “choosing the action that will bring about the greatest good for the greatest number of individuals” (University of Virginia, 2010, par. 5) was relevantly highlighted. There is considerable variation in the effectiveness of deterrence, and little is securely known regarding what threatened punishment for what crimes will have what effect. The same ethical theory of utilitarianism is deemed responsible for the punishment theory of incapacitation. As indicated in the discourse on Punishment (2011), expounding the discussion reveals that “custodial sentences may be required to protect the public from further harm, particularly when the crimes involve violence. This principle has influenced modern approaches to the sentencing of dangerous offenders and repeat offenders and lies behind the practice of electronic tagging” (par. 4). As the term signifies, individuals with susceptibilities to commit crime are incapacitated through technological measures that enable law enforcers to closely monitor their behavior. Finally, under rehabilitation, the punitive elements center on measures that reform and transform criminal offenders through formal education or training: Sentences may therefore involve an element of training or education and may sometimes include a requirement for medical or psychological treatment (e.g. in cases of drug addiction or certain behavioural problems). The idea of rehabilitation is generally accepted in relation to young offenders, and is also reflected in the system of parole, under which the length of a period of detention may be made dependent on the offender's good or bad behaviour (Punishment, 2011, par. 5). Juvenile offenders are recommended to be given opportunities for rehabilitation for the purpose of reflecting on the offenses committed and to accord them the chance to transform and correct errant ways with the hope of being reformatted into adults with positive values and behavior. Punishment as rehabilitation has reform for its objective. It is decisively oriented to the offender than to the offense. Nevertheless, rehabilitation is a form of punishment so long as it involves coercive confinement and a coercive demand that the individual submit to treatment. More importantly, rehabilitation is not undertaken primarily for the benefit of the offender. It is offered as a rational mode of crime prevention. Analysis and Applications The discussion of theories and concepts encompassing the study of crime and related theories on punishment serve to enhance awareness on the need to focus on matters that could be addressed. The incidences of crime have been evaluated by various theorists that attempted to proffer the rationale for their occurrence from various perspectives. However, these studies see crime from a historical point of view where the violent acts were already committed to helpless and unsuspecting victims. One’s reflection of the course modules and the topics discussed highlighted to need to focus on more positive measures that could be applied to individuals of violent tendencies through instilling significant theories in school’s curriculum at the earliest levels possible. One does not need to be only interested in the field of criminology to learn these theories and to attempt to circumvent their occurrence. The behavior modification techniques that could assist individuals, either with abnormal genes or psychological and sociological problems, should be instilled early through regular enforcement of positive attitudes, values and behavior that is expected to ensure that peace and order in the society is observed. The infusion of lessons on the criminal justice system and sanctions for penalties would assist individuals in being acquainted with theories of punishment. The rehabilitative approach for punishment, for example, emphasizes individualized treatment that is preventive in nature rather than punitive. This approach presumes that criminality is largely influenced by social and psychological deprivations. In this regard, collaborative effort from other state and federal agencies must be invoked to improve the standards and quality of living through various means. One can take a proactive stance in the objective of crime prevention by taking a particular professional perspective – either as a criminologist, psychologist, sociologist, or even as an economist. As Bushway and Reuter (n.d.) averred “a related area that might benefit from some more cross fertilization between economists and criminologists involves the growing area of studies that looks at the interaction between dynamic factors and self control or impulsivity” (64). This finding is consistent with one of the theories of criminology envisioned by Hirschi, Reckless, Gottfredson, and Hagan who focused on the theory of control (Culen & Agnew (2002). By keeping abreast with current developments on the study of crime and its applications from new endeavors, measures for prevention could be sourced from fields that were not initially thought of. This proves that the study of crime is a continually evolving discipline that requires further research to discover innovative applications, as needed. As a valuable member of society, one needs to be a participative member determined to apply theoretical frameworks learned on the study of crime. As there is value in increasing awareness on determining profiles of individuals with potentials for violent and criminal behavior, the objective should be to reform and rehabilitate them, rather than to condemn or to be indifferent. Further, students who have been given the opportunity to further their exposure on criminology theories could distinguish crime statistics from the prevalence of criminal conduct. Crimes are regularly committed in different segments of the community and there are costs involved to address these. The role of those who understand crime and their effects to society is to educate the public on the value of reporting. Many crimes are not reported to the police for various reasons: the victim may wish to protect the criminal, may want to avoid embarrassment, and may not want relations with the criminal to be further impaired, may prefer to seek redress without police involvement, or may fear reprisal. Awareness and reinforcement of morals and standards of ethical codes of discipline would relay the appropriate information to appropriate agencies to facilitate immediate legal action on these matters. One should not turn their backs on crime. It is a serious offense that needs the imposition of punishment. Members of society are concerned of keeping peace and order by adhering to rules and regulations imposed by law. Taking an active and participative stance in maintaining that order through vigilance, reporting incidences of crime, assisting victims, and supporting a positive atmosphere through promotion of ethics and morals, would assist in being responsible members of the society. Conclusion The study aimed to determine how theoretical concepts learned from the modules would contribute to improving the peace and order by deterring crimes in society through an individual’s proactive view. Through closer examination and assessment of the study of crime, identified as a multidisciplinary approach, one’s awareness of the rationale for occurrence stemmed from various perspectives. Discounting one particular theory could affect the assessment of the holistic picture of the criminal behavior. The theories of punishment proffer issues that address ways to inhibit repeated incidents of crime using punitive or preventive means. A discussion of the theories of deterrence, incapacitation, retribution and rehabilitation reinforced awareness in measures of crime preventions. There are theoretical frameworks traced from ethical concepts rationalizing the prescriptive method of punishment depending on the crime committed and the offender. In the end, these criminology theories are most useful in reinforcing positive attitudes and behavior through education, training, therapy, and the creation of a supportive environment to focus on rehabilitative approaches to reform individuals with susceptible criminal tendencies. Finally, as valuable members of society, it is the obligation and responsibility of each and every individual to take a proactive stance in crime prevention. Not only law enforcers could put a stop to individuals identified to exhibit violent behavior. Each and every member of society can contribute to prevent other individuals with criminal behavior to commit crimes against helpless victims by assisting in instilling positive values to family members and friends through education and training. Further, by reporting incidents of crime at the soonest possible time, one could actually contribute to immediate assistance to help the victim, to apprehend criminals, and possibly accord opportunities for rehabilitation and reform to make them productive members of society in the future. Crime does not pay could be an overused adage – but is it definitely a useful reflective aphorism. References Broom, L. and Selznick, P. (1997). Sociology: A Text with Adapted Readings. New York: Harper and Row. Bushway, S. and Reuter, P. (n.d.). Economists’ Contribution to the Study of Crime and the Criminal Justice System. Retrieved 10 March 2011. Criminology: the study of crime and behavior. (n.d.). Retrieved 11 March 2011. < http://www.rpi.edu/~verwyc/lawchap5.htm> “Criminological Theory Summaries.” Adapted from Cullen & Agnew. (2002). Criminological Theory: Past to Present (Essential Readings). Los Angeles, CA: Roxbury. Retrieved 10 March 2011. Greek, C.E. (2005). The Positive School: Biological and Psychological Factors. Retrieved 11 March 2011. Punishment, Theories of retribution, deterrence, incapacitation, rehabilitation, reform, regulatory offences, means rea, arbitrary punishment. (2011). Retrieved 13 March 2011. < http://law.jrank.org/pages/17017/Punishment-Theories.html> Souryal, S.S. (2007). Ethics in Criminal Justice: In Search of the Truth, 4e. Elsevier Inc. University of Virginia, School of Medicine. (2010). Ethical Considerations in the Use of Laboratory Animals for Research and Teaching at the University of Virginia. Retrieved 13 March 2011. < http://www.healthsystem.virginia.edu/internet/ccm/ethics/ethics.cfm> Read More