The Use of Water Energy - Annotated Bibliography Example

WATER-ENERGY IEEE ARTICLES EVALUATIONS EVALUATION OF “THE FUTURE OF HYDROPOWER” This report analyses the IEEE Spectrum article, “The Future of Hydropower.” Hydropower, as the name suggests, is energy generated from flowing water. Flowing water is used as the force by which turbines are rotated at a high speed to a level where electrical energy is generated. The above named article does not mainly dwell on describing how this energy is generated, but its main focus is on prediction of the future of this form of energy. Basically, the questions this article seeks to answer include questions such as, “how long will this form of energy continue being available?” or “how are we sure of the availability of hydropower in the future?” or “if hydropower will still be available in the future, will the quantity be more or less” and, finally, “how will the countries that mainly depend on this form of energy hack it in the future?” The author talks of the difficulty in determining or predicting the flow of rivers because of the unpredictable and drastic changes in the climate. According to the author, it subsequently becomes difficult to design dams that are in accordance to the flow of water. To support her evidence, Anne-Marie goes ahead to give statistics from an Australian case study of the Murray River which is either expected to be drier by 34% in the next twenty years or larger by 11%. The range here is therefore too large for correct measures to be taken ahead of time. The use of hydropower can be traced back to 1882, where people used to generate hydropower for use in their grain mills among other uses (Draper 32). As the demand for electricity grew, the need for bigger hydropower project arose, and large dams were built to enable mass production of electricity. However, with time, the environmental impacts of generating power from water have been felt and understood. In as much as hydropower is non-polluting to the environment as compared to other sources of electricity production, it has some negative impacts on the environment (Draper 32). First and foremost, vast areas of forests have to be cut down to ensure adequate space for dam construction. Dams usually directly affect the flow of a river, making the river sources drained of too much water. This is not to mention the fact that aquatic life is also affected when such flow is affected. Therefore, this gives the more reason why hydropower cannot be fully relied on for the future of a lighted world (Smith 130). Anne-Marie Corley, the author of this IEEE article, writes a clear thesis statement, which is “figuring out how much hydropower there will be in the future……..is becoming more difficult.” Also, the position taken by Anne-Marie in the argument was clearly seen and easily understood, not forgetting to mention the fact that substantial evidence was given to support the author’s argument. EVALUATION OF “EIGHT TECHNOLOGIES FOR DRINKABLE SEA WATER” This report analyzes the IEEE Spectrum article, “Eight Technologies for Drinkable Seawater,” which is written by Sally Adee. Her main assumption, which is also the thesis statement, states that “desalination of seawater is energy-inefficient, but emerging technologies will help.” The eight technologies include thermal desalination, reverse osmosis, capacitive deionization, hydrodynamic spinning, and the use of alternative and better membranes, forward osmosis, osmotic power and microbial fuel cells. For each of the above technologies, the author gives the upside, the downside and other recommendations for the method. For thermal desalination, the author states that it highly depends on energy, making it somewhat inefficient, though effective. Also, she states that energy-inefficiency is not the only problem with desalination, but brine is another environmental issue. Brine is the substance or slurry collected after the desalination process is done. Brine contains metals and other pharmaceutical elements, and the mixture is highly toxic to aquatic life and to the environment. However, there seems to be a light at the end of the tunnel as far as the brine issue is concerned; current ongoing research seems to indicate that brine can actually be used as a source of energy needed for desalination process. For reverse osmosis, the author explains that it is a method by which a membrane is used between the feed water and fresh, pure water, and hydraulic pressure is used to force water molecules to flow in the “anti-osmotic” direction. The advantage, according to the author, of this method is that it consumes comparatively little energy to complete the process, but the toxic brine obtained as a by-product is still an issue that has not been tackled. Another downside is the cost of maintaining the purification system; the membranes have to be scrapped and cleaned every so often to prevent blockage. Also, cleaning them often usually makes the tear and wear higher. Also, Sally states that a reverse osmosis plant is to be opened in 2012 in the United State’s Pacific coast. Capacitive deionization involves passing the feed water through a pipe which, instead of having membranes, has positively and negatively charged electrodes. The positive electrode attracts all negatively charged impurities to it and the negative electrode attracts all the positively charged impurities to it. Just like the membranes on reverse osmosis, the electrodes do get clogged with impurities, but cleaning the electrodes is very easy unlike cleaning the membranes; when cleaning needs to be done, the electrodes are subjected to reverse polarization, where the negatively charged electrode becomes positively charged and the positively charged one becomes negatively charged. When this happens, all the dirt attached to them is repelled, and water is flushed through the pipeline to carry off the impurities. The upside, according to the author is that this method is energy-efficient and that maintaining it is very easy. One of the major downsides of this method is that the toxic brine is still a problem. In hydrodynamic spinning, the water is made to flow through a very long and winding pipeline, causing a build-up of hydrodynamic forces that cause all solid residues to collect along the inner curves of the pipes, and the pure water flows along the outer curves. This is the same technology that works in rivers, causing the development of evident meanders as the river becomes older. The method is energy efficient, according to the author, and it applies to waste water and seawater. However, toxic brine is still collected, and maintenance of the pipelines is very taxing. The use of alternative membranes includes introduction of membranes that are different from the conventional ones used in osmosis in that they need less energy to force water through the system. These membranes will also be made in such a way that they use selective molecular structure in allowing or withholding passage through them. The best proposed elements for construction of these membranes include boron and arsenic. This method is said to be very energy-efficient. However, these membranes are still under R &D, and are therefore unavailable currently. Toxic brine is also an issue with this method. Forward osmosis is the other technology that can be used. In this method, a semi-permeable membrane is placed between two solutions; the sea water and a more hypertonic one to the seawater. It is a very energy-efficient method, and the hypertonic solution can be recycled for many years. However, toxic brine is also a problem with this method, and the fresh water has to be totally purified from any traces of the hypertonic solution, ammonia being one of the components in this solution (Kraeuter & Castagna 233). The use of osmotic power not only purifies water but is also used to generate electricity after that. It works by placing a semi permeable membrane between two solutions that have different salt levels. As the more hypotonic solution rushes to the hypertonic side by forward osmosis, osmotic pressure accumulates on the hypertonic side. The accumulated pressure then causes the water to rotate an awaiting turbine, thus generating power. This method is energy-efficient, and it does not have the risk of toxic brine. However, the energy it produces is negligible. The last of the eight technologies is the use of microbial fuel cells. Microbial fuel cells are introduced into the feed water, and these cells contain bacteria that feed on the impurities in the feed water. As part of the metabolic by-products, electrons are released into the water. The advantage with this method is that it is self-cleaning. However, this method cannot be of immediate help because research is still not completed. The article is very informative, and every technique is explained using a well labeled diagram. The thesis statement is well stated, making the ground on which the author stands clear. However, some of the figures given for the energy used to purify water are inaccurate and wanting. Also, the main downside in reverse osmosis is not the wear and tear of membranes due to cleaning, but the high cost of pre-treating these membranes. The hydraulic spinning method seems to be very effective, and it should be implemented. Also, the author seems to assume that all of the methods, especially capacitive deionization, produce totally pure water that is free from particulate matter. She does not account for the errors the methods may have. The explanations on the osmotic power and microbial fuel cells (and the diagrams too) seem to be very ambiguous and wanting (Yong & Thomas 178). EVALUATION ON “SINGAPORE’S WATER CYCLE WIZARDRY” This article, written by Sandra Upson, is based upon the credence that water and energy shortage has been reduced greatly in Singapore because of the new technology adapted therein, known as the “toilet-to-tap technique.” According to the author’s information, Singapore had a rude awakening during world war two, when the main bridge that connected it to the mainland suffered destruction because of the war, and the pipeline that supplied water to the island of Singapore was ruptured in the process. It was such a barefaced shock to Singapore when the government came to the realization that the water in the reservoirs was enough to only cover the citizens of Singapore for a few days! Many things have happened in Singapore ever since, but what is known for sure today is that this port city is water-independent. Water recycling is the key word in Singapore, whereby all waste water is collected (as opposed to draining it into the ocean) and treated to a level where it is totally safe for drinking. Introducing this ideas to Singapore’s public was not easy though, because no one would stomach the thought of having toilet water in their mouth, no matter how sparkling. Apart from resentment from the citizens, this method was also bound to be very energy intensive, since slurry water had to be purified to a level of pure drinking water. However, after weighing all the pros and cons involved, the decision to recycle waste water was reached at as the final conclusion. Reservoirs were built to collect rain water and storage and purification plants were made for the purification of waste water. Manufacturers in Singapore also had an issue with accepting the recycled water for use in their manufacturing plants, because they were not sure of how it would affect their production cycles and equipment. However, they were convinced that the pure water obtained was purer than the required level of purity for drinking water, and that not only would it be effective for manufacturing processes, it would also ensure energy efficiency in the manufacturer’s cooling plants because of absence of impurities in the recycled water (Fukushi 126). The waste water is purified by first forcing it through a filtration system, where all the solid residues and other unseen waste matter was filtered off. Other purification methods followed after the filtration. The water obtained after filtration is mainly purified by passing it (forcing it) through a series of holes that are of decreasing size so that the water flowing out from the other side has lesser impurities. The holes in the membranes filter out bacteria and particles that are even as small as 0.1 micrometers. The water obtained after this process is subjected to reverse osmosis to get rid of any smaller particles and viruses. The water obtained here is forced through 0.0001 micrometers for extra purity. Though the water obtained thus is pure enough, it is still subjected to UV treatment so that all viruses and bacteria are killed and/or made impossible to reproduce. The author’s way of writing and developing the points therein is quite impressive, with the statistics being accurate theoretically. It is very convincing even to other nations that are skeptical about recycling water, especially because of the fact that the author points out that even though people refuse to recycle water, they still do so indirectly by consuming waste water from industries that is released into rivers and lakes. However, the description of the final filtration method before the UV treatment needs to be made more detailed, especially with the help of illustrations (Tan 106). EVALUATION OF “BIO-FUEL’S WATER PROBLEM” This report seeks to evaluate the IEEE Spectrum article entitled “Bio-fuel’s Water Problem,” authored by David Schneider. The thesis statement, or the hypothesis, of the author is that “irrigating bio-fuel crops on a grand scale would be disastrous.” The author starts by saying that one of the great advantages of bio-fuel is that unlike petroleum, there are very many options of sources of the bio-fuel. Therefore, bio-fuel can e used even by those nations that are not endowed with the oil deposits. However, the tone of the subject changes when the author posits that the crops from which bio-fuel is generated need a lot of irrigation water for growth, making the option of bio-fuel a not-so-viable one after all. The author chooses to mainly look at soybeans, because they are the main source of bio-fuels. He states that “28 liters of irrigation water are needed to produce enough soybeans to propel an average vehicle 1 kilometer, which translates to about 12 gallons of water per mile.” Almost the same amount of water (26 liters) is required to grow corn enough to produce ethanol that can propel an average vehicle for one kilometer. These 28 and 26 liter figures are compared to the 0.33 to 0.78 liters needed to produce gasoline or diesel for the same amount of mileage for an average vehicle. He continues to state that close to 40% of all the water drawn from the water sources is drawn for irrigation purposes. Because of the statistics provided, the author concludes by saying that using bio-fuel from irrigated plants is not efficient at all, and the only efficient alternative is to extract bio-fuel from plants that are not grown by irrigation but only using the natural rain water. The statement that soybeans are grown using so much water stands to be corrected, because many reliable sources indicate that it is possible for soybeans to grow fully without even a drop of irrigation water (Demirbas 253). Also, it would do no harm to produce bio-fuel from corn and soybeans even though the irrigation water figures are correct, because corn and soybeans are still grown for other purposes other than bio-fuel. Better still, corn and soybeans can be grown specifically in areas with heavy rainfall to make the project more efficient (Hayhurst 47). EVALUATION OF “PUMPING PUNJAB DRY” This report evaluates the article “Pumping Punjab Dry,” which is written by Seema Singh. The hypothesis of the author is that “cheap energy endangers India’s ability to feed itself.” This is because the farmers in Punjab use irrigation water pumped from the ground through the cheap wells made in their farms, from which the water is pumped using electric or diesel pumps. An average farmer needs to have the pump running for about four to eight hours continuously so that irrigation and watering of livestock can be completed. This consumes a lot of diesel, amounting to almost $5 per hour. According to the author, the ground water level goes down by about half a meter annually, forcing the farmers to deepen their wells every year. According to the author, it will only take less than 30 years for the Punjab’s ground water to be exhausted. Because of the rate at which irrigation water is being used, it can only sustain about 65% of the hectares of rice it has. The article has useful material and it motivates one to think of better and alternative methods for sustainability in Punjab. However, some of the statistics given here are erroneous. For instance, it is impossible to believe that for pumping of water, an extra 11 kilowatt per hectare will be needed. Also, the author states that about 5 Kwh are needed for desalination of 1 million liters sea water, but this is quite a high figure when compared to that of Singapore, which is way below 2 Kwh (Raman 224). The statistical evidence needs more backing. The author should also conduct a study of Punjab relative to the surrounding states, because Punjab cannot have such water and energy problems in such solitude, when neighboring states have a different story altogether (Raman 149). EVALUATION OF “POWERED BY CRAZY” This report seeks to evaluate the report entitled “Powered by Crazy,” written by Sally Adee and Anne-Marie Corley. To start with, the authors agree that the energy schemes discussed in the article are “so crazy they just might work.” They also admit that though the schemes may fail to work or be efficient, “they at least show fresh……ways of thinking about old problems….exactly what we need.” Some of these “crazy” schemes include moisture whip, uranium from sea water, urine energy, atmospheric water generation, fire ice, desert greenhouse and the mangrove method of desalination. For the moisture whip, the hurricane scenario is imitated, because hurricanes produce a lot of energy enough for the whole world’s sustenance in energy. It is done by introducing warm air and steam into a large room, and causing the mixture to rotate for a while so that it will become self-sustaining. Louis Michaud, the engineer trying this out, claims that “a 200-meter-diameter machine could produce 200 megawatts.” In the scheme involving getting uranium from seawater, the people behind it are driven by the fact that the amount of uranium in seawater is thousands of times more than the one found on dry land. This, according to them, can be done by introduction of certain seaweed that will absorb metals. When the seaweed is “harvested,” it will undergo normal extraction processes that tealeaves and coffee beans undergo. Another Ohio-based scheme is that of extracting hydrogen from urine. This hydrogen obtained can be used to propel fuel-cell-powered cars, and it can be done by drying urine to get urea (whose atomic structure contains 4 hydrogen atoms) and then breaking the hydrogen atoms to get hydrogen using relatively low voltage. Atmospheric water generation entails extracting water from the moisture in the air, especially for the highly humid arid areas. The fire ice method entails separating the water molecules from methane hydrate by applying warmth to a block of methane hydrate ice or by causing a release of pressure on it. The scientists are sure of obtaining pure water by this method, but they are yet to come up with an extraction method that is energy efficient. In the desert greenhouse method, a recreation of the water cycle is aimed at so as to give a solution for food security to all coastal areas. A greenhouse is constructed, and ocean water is made to slowly flow down the roof and wall of the front part of the green house. This is so that it will absorb heat from the air within to use it for evaporation. The moisture is spread within the greenhouse by use of fans so that the plants in the greenhouse will have a sufficiently moist atmosphere for healthy growth. The mangroves are also used to desalinate seawater. This is because of the fact that they grow in very salty waters, and almost 99% of the salt remains in the roots of these trees. Scientists do not plan to use mangroves for desalination per say, but they intend to study the plant to know the scientific desalination technique it employs so that they can use it in real life (Gautier 202). Works Cited Demirbas, A. (2009). Biofuels: securing the planet’s future energy needs. Springer Publishers. Link: http://books.google.com/books?id=4pp6aFaMPJ4C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Biofuels+securing+the+planet%27s+future+energy+needs&hl=en&src=bmrr&ei=8BY6TsOdE4OzhAfem-2wAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Draper, A.S. (2003). Hydropower of the Future: new ways of turning water into energy. The Rosen Publishing Group. Link: http://books.google.com/books?id=KWkzdRNGi-8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Hydropower+of+the+Future:+new+ways+of+turning+water+into+energy&hl=en&ei=HBc6TpDpBcHOhAfv84z6AQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Fukushi, K. (2010). Southeast Asian Water Environment 4. IWA Publishing. Available at http://books.google.com/books?id=EaRdbuC37YgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Southeast+Asian+Water+Environment+4.&hl=en&ei=RRc6ToWhK5CZhQfQ6pWgAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Gautier, C. (2008). Oil, Water and Climate: an introduction. Cambridge University Press. Available at http://books.google.com/books?id=BUS20maWl8kC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Oil,+Water+and+Climate:+an+introduction&hl=en&src=bmrr&ei=Zxc6Toj6O9O6hAfOoqidAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Hayhurst, C. (2003). Biofuel power of the future: new ways of turning organic matter into energy. The Rosen Publishing Group. Available at http://books.google.com/books?id=FbyZOeK82IcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Biofuel+power+of+the+future:+new+ways+of+turning+organic+matter+into+energy&hl=en&ei=jhc6TvfBJcWyhAeR1LCnAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Kraeuter, J.N. & Castagna, M. (2001). Biology of the Hard Clam. Gulf Professional Publishing. Available at http://books.google.com/books?id=QhfrFPUSc8YC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Biology+of+the+Hard+Clam&hl=en&src=bmrr&ei=rRc6TtDOJIrNhAfdudSzAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Raman, S. (2006). Agricultural Sustainability: principles, processes and prospects. Routledge Publishing. Available at http://books.google.com/books?id=XuNMQ221n1oC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Agricultural+Sustainability:+principles,+processes+and+prospects&hl=en&ei=zhc6TrvJGcS5hAe20dySAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Smith, K.K. (2005). Powering our Future: an energy sourcebook for sustainable living. iUniverse Publishing. Available at http://books.google.com/books?id=DuSYMMOIQ2UC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Powering+our+Future:+an+energy+sourcebook+for+sustainable+living&hl=en&ei=8Bc6ToH-OIuIhQeE-aGvAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Tan, T.H. (2010). Singapore Perspectives 2010: home, heart, horizon. World Scientific. Available at http://books.google.com/books?id=Tf9Ftbi3sdAC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Singapore+Perspectives+2010:+home,+heart,+horizon.&hl=en&ei=Ehg6TqedCMXJhAeSl5SRAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Yong, R.N. & Thomas, H.R. (2004). Geo-environmental Engineering: integrated management of ground water and contaminated land. Thomas Telford. Available at http://books.google.com/books?id=LZio_UTuAuAC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Geo-environmental+Engineering:+integrated+management+of+ground+water+and+contaminated+land.&hl=en&ei=Khg6TpC0N9GzhAf8qfiSAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Read More