Impact of Urbanization on the Climate in Developing Countries - Research Paper Example

Impact of urbanization on the climate in developing countries Impact of urbanization on the climate in developing countries Introduction Through the centuries the continuous increase of global population has led to changes in regard to the structure and the size of cities. Since the beginning of the 1900s the development of urbanization, as a trend, has become quite rapid, being aligned to the need of people for living in highly industrialized areas, where the demand for workers was high (Marzluff 2008). The term urban has been related to two, different, criteria: ‘the density of population or the dominant land cover’ (Marzluff 2008, p.1). For example, for the US Census Bureau an area can be characterized as urban when local residents are estimated to at least 2500 (Marzluff 2008, p.1). Today, urbanization has been expanded globally. Its rapid expansion has been related to climate change; the phenomenon is more intensive in developing countries. The effects of urbanization on the climate change in developing countries are presented and analyzed in this paper. The literature related to this subject has been critically reviewed in order to identify all aspects of the relationship between urbanization and climate change, in regard to the developing countries. It is proved that urbanization is highly involved in climate change in these countries; however, the level at which urbanization has influenced the climate of developing countries is not standardized. Certain of these countries have been proved as better prepared to control the expansion of urbanization in their territory. Other countries, such as China, face difficulties in managing the effects of urbanization. 2. Urbanization and environment Due to its radical expansion worldwide, urbanization has been extensively explored as of its environmental effects. In fact, it has been proved that urbanization can impact the environment in regard to all its elements, meaning ‘the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the lithosphere’ (Joseph 2009, p.11). More specifically, under the influence of urbanization, the levels of CO2 in the atmosphere can reach extremely high levels, depending on the density of local population (Joseph 2009). At the same time, urbanization leads to the reduction of the O2 available in atmosphere, due to the limitation of green areas where O2 is produced (Joseph 2009). In terms of the hydrosphere the expansion of urbanization is reflected to the following fact: the needs for water in urban areas can be quite high (Joseph 2009). The potentials of local water depositories to respond to these needs are often limited (Joseph 2009). In addition, urbanization can affect lithosphere: extensive land areas are engaged in the development of buildings and urban spaces, such as entertainment areas or parking lots (Joseph 2009). The shrinkage of cultivable pieces of land in favor of urbanization can be characterized as one of the most severe consequences of urbanization for the environment (Joseph 2009). Wagner emphasizes on the following effect of urbanization: ‘the disposal of urban wastes’ (Wagner 2008, p.156). In practice, it has been proved that the volume of urban waste can be extremely high, threatening the quality of air, water and land of urban regions and their surroundings (Wagner 2008). In certain cities a series of units for the management of urban waste has been established, so that the risks of this waste are minimized (Wagner 2008). However, the effectiveness of these units seems to be, in most cases, at rather low levels (Wagner 2008). The management of urban waste so that environment is not threatened has become a key priority for urban space designers and governments worldwide (Wagner 2008). From another point of view, urbanization can be related to ‘the limitation of biological diversity’ (Marzluff 2008, p.3). Indeed, the moving of people to urban areas leads to the increase of the need for a series of products, such as food, machinery and so on (Marzluff 2008). Enterprises aiming to cover these needs have to expand their existing units (Marzluff 2008). Land areas that were previously cultivated or those covered by forests are transformed to industrial zones (Marzluff 2008). In this context, urbanization causes irreversible damages on the environment (Marzluff 2008). 3. The impact of urbanization on the climate in developing countries As explained above, urbanization has been related to climate change. However, the empirical studies available in regard to the involvement of urbanization in climate change are limited (Booth et al. 2012). This means that many aspects of the relationship between urbanization and climate change are still unknown. Existing literature can be valuable though for understanding the potentials of urbanization to affect the climate change in all countries, including the developing ones. In developing countries the expansion of urbanization has been related to a series of problems. For facing these problems, local governments have developed various initiatives; up to now, most of these initiatives have been proved ineffective, probably because of the lack of experience in managing similar challenges. Reference could be made, as an example, to the case of China. In order to control the impact of urbanization on the environment, the government of China has decided to introduce a scheme for controlling pollutants: two control zones have been established: a) one related ‘to sulfur dioxide and b) one related to the acid rain’ (Chen and Zhang 2004, p.327). The first zone has been implemented in about ‘64 cities while the second one has been related to 118 cities’ (Chen and Zhang 2004, p.327). The review of China’s current environmental problems proves that the above initiatives have been unable to control the impact of urbanization on environment. The importance of this finding could be understood if taking into consideration the severe damages that urbanization can cause to the environment, as analyzed below. The effects of urbanization on climate change in developing countries can be understood if referring to the following facts: a) because of urbanization, the increase of urban spaces in developing countries is unavoidable; this means that land areas in the relevant regions need to be decreased (Watson et al. 2008, p.246). In addition, not all cities face continuous urbanization (Satterthwaite 2007). Indeed, there are cities that are highly urbanized but no urbanization process is in progress (Satterthwaite 2007); cities in developed countries are more likely to belong in this category. Moreover, due to their high volume of waste, urban regions face the following challenge: fish stock in the water – covered areas, such as the sea, surrounding a city is likely to be significantly decreased due to the pollution caused by urban waste (Watson et al. 2008). In general, in developing countries also, as in developed ones, high urbanization is related to ‘extensive pollution of air and water’ (Watson et al. 208). In addition, urbanization in developing countries has led to the increased need for water and other resources, a problem that it is not easy to be managed, especially since water resources in these countries tend to be low. The decrease of water resources available in developing countries can lead to severe social conflicts, at the level that water is a key element of human existence and its availability would be a priority for all governments worldwide (Watson 2008). According to a study published by the World Bank (2008) the impact of urbanization in developing countries seems to have many similarities with the impact of urbanization in developed countries. In this context, in developing countries where urbanization is highly developed, the CO2 released to the atmosphere can be at significantly high levels (World Bank 2008). The level of greenhouse gases released to the atmosphere of developing countries can be extremely high, depending on the density of population and the design of urban spaces (World Bank 2008). Moreover, Rosenzweig et al. (2011) explain that urbanization can also affect climate change in the following way: the increase of population in a city leads to the increase of the city’s energy needs (Rosenzweig et al. 2011), either in the short or the long term. From a similar point of view, it has been explained that in developing countries climate change is mostly related to ‘the disruption of liveli-hoods and the establishment of barriers in regard to sustainable development’ (Ford and Berrang-Ford 2011, p.402). This means that urbanization, as related to climate change, can be an obstacle for the sustainable development of developing countries. The creation in a city of urban spaces that are possible based on the rules of sustainability cannot lead to the assumption that in the particular city emphasizes on sustainability (Ford and Berrang-Ford 2011). Dinar (1998) has tried to identify the potential relationship between urbanization and climate change, especially in regard to developing countries. Using relevant literature and empirical evidence, Dinar (1998) came to the assumption that ‘cities in developing countries are more affected by local than by global pollution’ (Dinar 1998, p.15). In other words, urbanization, which leads to the high local pollution, can affect the climate of cities in developing countries. Still, the following problem exists: how could urbanization in the cities of developed countries be controlled since these cities are mostly based on industrialization, which can be considered as the key reason for the expansion of urbanization as a social phenomenon (Dinar 1998). Hoornweg et al. (2011) explain that urbanization affects the climate in developing countries in a particular way: the increasing urbanization leads to the increase of CO2 and gases released in the atmosphere of cities. Because of these emissions and gases, global temperature starts to be increased (Hoornweg et al. 2011). Cities that are near the sea may face extremely high temperatures, as a result of climate change, caused by the expansion of urbanization (Hoornweg et al. 2011). Cities that are far from the sea could face another problem: existing water resources would be reduced, due to the lack of effective water management (Hoornweg et al. 2011). In order to understand the relationship between urbanization and climate change in the developing countries reference should be made to the following fact: in developed countries, where urbanization is already at quite high levels, the ‘global annual emissions of CO2 from fuel’ (Metz 2001, p.183) has a price of 397 where in developing countries, where urbanization is in progress, the above price was decreased to 167 (Metz 2001, p.184). As noted in the study of May (2012) in developing countries urbanization has led to the ‘radical increase of cities’ population’ (May 2012, p.257) as followed by ‘environmental degradation’ (May 2012). In regard to the above issues, Satterthwaite (2007) has explained that the examination of the effects of urbanization on climate change has to deal with two problems: a) urbanization ‘does not necessarily lead to the increase of cities’ vulnerability to climate change’ (Satterthwaite 2007, p.31) and b) there are no studies that can prove the potential of urbanization to be used as a driver for checking climate change using different drivers (Satterthwaite 2007). The impact of urbanization on climate could be made clear by referring to a city, preferably of a developing country. The region chosen is the South East Asia where the rapid expansion of urbanization has resulted to ‘the change of land surface surrounding cities, especially in regard to the green vegetation cover and the surface roughness’ (The Association of Academies of Sciences in Asia 2012, p. 57). In general, it has been proved that urbanization in South East Asia has led to the transformation of ‘landscape mosaic’ (The Association of Academies of Sciences in Asia 2012, p. 57); the above term reflects a series of changes that have been developed in regard to a regions’ landscape, such as the construction of extremely high buildings, the limitation of green areas and of cropland (The Association of Academies of Sciences in Asia 2012). Moreover, it has been proved that urbanization can promote climate change as it supports a series of activities that can harm the environment, such as: ‘the change in land use and land cover, the change in existing hydrological networks and so on’ (The Association of Academies of Sciences in Asia 2012, p. 57). In Korea, part of the South East Asia, the increase of average temperature between 1906 and 2005 reached the 1.5 degrees, while for the rest of the world an increase of temperature by 0.74 degrees was reported (Green et al. 2010, p.22). The subterranean temperature in Seoul during the last 100 years can be also considered as an important indicator of the effects of urbanization on the local environment, as related to the global environment (Treidel et al. 2012). It has been proved that during the above period, the last 100 years, the average subterranean temperature in Seoul has been increased by 50m, a fact that it is related to the city’s high urbanization (Treidel et al. 2012). The subterranean temperature reflects the changes that have been developed locally and which affect the ability of the land to perform high if cultivated. At this point, the following issue should be made clear: subterranean temperature cannot be easily changed (Treidel et al. 2012). It rather requires the development of a series of intensive, on-land activities, such as extraction of water or other material, meaning especially the energy-related materials (Treidel et al. 2012). In Bangkok, a similar phenomenon has appeared. In the particular city, a high surface temperature has been reported, a fact that has been related to the high level of the city’s urbanization (Treidel et al. 2012, p.346). In Bangkok, as also in Seoul, high urbanization has led to the increased needs for water (Treidel et al. 2012). This need led to the increase of water pumping, so that the needs of local population in terms of water are covered (Treidel et al. 2012). In regard to Seoul, it is noted that the city’s needs in terms of energy and water have been significantly increased the last years mostly because of the radical increase of the city’s population (Boone and Fragkias 2013). Indeed, from ‘5.3 million, in 1970 the population of Seoul has reached the 10 million’ (Boone and Fragkias 2013, p.180), i.e. almost doubled. This increase has also led to the following problem, as related the environment: when urban waste is disposed in water, important pollution is caused. The recovery of the land/ water, since the pollution can refer to the sea or to a river, from the above pollution can be quite long (Boone and Fragkias 2013). It may be necessary for the relevant initiative to be supported by the government, especially if the amount requited for the funding of the project is high. In cities with different geopolitical structure, than that of Seoul, the effects of urbanization in climate change may be differentiated (Treidel et al. 2012). However, the relevant differences would be limited at the level that the cities in South East Asia have many similarities as of their design/ infrastructure and geopolitical environment (Treidel et al. 2012). 4. Conclusion The relationship between urbanization and climate change has been proved to be strong. In practice, in most cities efforts are made so that the impact of urbanization on environment to be controlled; these efforts often fail not necessarily because of the lack of willingness of local authorities but mostly because of the lack of resources for covering all needs of the relevant projects. In regard to the impact of urbanization on climate change in developing countries, the following facts should be highlighted: a) the effects of urbanization on the environment cannot be eliminated; they can only be controlled using appropriate policies; b) even if urbanization is related to climate change, it is quite difficult for the development of urbanization to be controlled; the problem is even higher in the developing countries where industrialization, closely related to urbanization, is expanded rapidly; c) most aspects of urbanization, as related to climate change in developing countries, have not been examined through empirical research. The existing studies are important for understanding the close relationship between urbanization and climate change; however, these studies do not explain clearly the impact of urbanization in climate change of developing countries, or at least, not adequate explanations are provided in regard to the above issue. Further research is required in order to understand fully the effects of urbanization on climate change in developing countries, not only currently but also, mainly, for the future. References Boone, C. and Fragkias, M. (2013). Urbanization and Sustainability. New York: Springer Booth, C., Hammond, F., Lamond, J. and Proverbs, D. (2012). Solutions for Climate Change Challenges in the Built Environment. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons Chen, A. and Zhang, K. (2004) Urbanization and Social Welfare in China. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. Dinar, A. (1998). Measuring the Impact of Climate Change on Indian Agriculture. 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