Urbanisation in Developing Countries - Coursework Example

Environmental issues and sustainability Environmental issues and sustainability Informal settlements occur where housing has been developed in an urban or semi-urban setting without proper and official approval by the relevant authority. Such settlements may contain thousands of dwellings, which are characterized by insufficient infrastructure, poor access to fundamental services such as roads, education and health facilities, unsuitable living environments, large and uncontrolled populations, insufficient dwellings, and lack of proper and effective municipal administration among other social problems. Informal settlements have become a norm in Africa, Asia, Nigeria, South Africa, India and China (Huchzermeyer 2004, 76). This paper discusses the phenomenon of informal settlements in general though several illustrations of the most prevalent nations and region are not given. It clearly defines the effects of the development of informal settlements on environmental issues and sustainability. The major problems brought about by informal settlements in urban regions are: Insecurity in terms of land possession Poor quality housing Poverty and hunger, lack of good and nutritious food, and children dropping out of schools. Health problems such as skin diseases and diarrhea which are caused by overcrowding, lack of good quality drainage systems and sewerage, poor hygiene and sanitation among others Stress, worry, anxiety, disappointments and hypertension Unsustainable environments for better upbringing and education of children. A good example is the growth of informal settlements in Montego Bay in Jamaica. Though such settlements help low income individuals solve their problem of housing their households and the informal settlement at the same time also ha adverse effects to the environment. Tremendous costs are involved to the neighborhoods as well as the whole city in terms of environmental problems that intimidate household health and the region’s economic base, which is the tourism sector. These environmental problems exist in the form of insufficient or no provision of tar marked roads, chemically treated piped water, poor sanitation, and irresponsible littering of garbage for a high percentage of those living in such settlements (Glossary of Environment Statistics). In a country like Algeria, the experience of informal settlements is one of the significant areas of magnitude. Spontaneous campsites came to exist during the colonization period by the French. Built on the border of the planned colonial city, such sites served as shelter for the underprivileged and poor populations. After Algeria gained independence, there was a rapid entry of rural migrants to cities and this resulted to housing shortage, which led to the explosion of urbanization all over the Algerian cities. Today, Algeria is one of the countries with large populations of informal settlements (UN Habitat 2010, 162) Several governments all over the globe have tried dealing with settlements through urban development. Informal settlements commonly known as slums are a widespread mode of urban development throughout the globe. Research conducted in 2007 showed that the estimated number of urban dwellers was 1 billion for every 3.25 billion people all over the world who were living in the slums. This subject of slums or informal settlements is of chief significance when studying, researching and trying to deal with parallel urbanisation. Since such settlements are informal and have been developed without considering the formal and recognized systems of urban development and this means that building structures are constructed without any proper plan and hence the many problems and challenges associated with such settlements (UN Habitat 2010, 162) Informal settlement expansion is not just a single random activity that depends on the action of a single individual but a well-organised and communal effort. that is planned early enough in advance and achieved in a manner of accuracy, precision and discipline .Development of Informal settlement is a rational resource management plan for the people living in such settlements as well as other groups who are relevant stakeholders. Informal settlement development also calls for the approval of the local elite within such regions for instance members of the municipal council should give consent for the process to be undertaken legitimately. It may be assumed that there are general processes that are common or have similar characteristics irrespective of the country and locality but it all are determined by land availability for expansion of urban structures, value of the land as well as the sizes of population among other factors. It is also necessary for nations affected by the growth of slums to understand the rationale and logic behind the formation and development of slums as well as the principles of routine life in slum areas in a proper way to avoid devastating damages to the dwellers of such areas (Meléndez-Ortiz & Roffe 2009, 117). As per reports tabled by the United Nations millennium development goals in 2005, the aim of the goal was set so as to accomplish a considerable improvement in the lives of not less than 100 million slum-dwellers by the year 2020 (UNDP 2005). The ultimate formalization of informal settlements though, has many advantages to both the slum dwellers and the authorities involved. For the people living in the informal settlements, legalisation of housing projects enhances their security considerably by suggesting and offering a long-term point of view and possibilities to obtain investments in their own housing. As far as the authorities are concerned, legalisation ensures that rental income could be taxed thus increasing revenue collection to the government (Kreimer et al 1995, 94). Legalization of ownership is also crucial as a fundamental security aspect for funding agencies so as to give loans to the slum dwellers. However, legalization of informal settlements causes several problems especially to the environment. It is obviously more costly to provide better infrastructural services to informal settlement regions since the areas are poorly planned. The anticipated adverse effects of future climatic changes include increased temperatures, high sea levels and higher frequencies of adverse weather conditions as well as having severe, adverse impacts on tropical and sub-tropical climates. According to latest reports by IPCC (IPCC 2007, 33), universal air temperatures are anticipated to increase between 1.1 to 6.4°C in the 22nd century and the number of heat waves is expected to increase as well. These changes are anticipated to be more prevalent in informal settlements where there are very high populations. Informal settlements are mostly built with little or no consideration of the climate change factor, which usually results to adverse microclimate with negative effects on the comfort of humans both indoor and outdoor environments. Urban dwellers are therefore exposed to the adverse effects of global warming integrated with urban warming and in extremely warm climates this may lead to an increased numbers and rates of heat-related illnesses (Makhanya et al 2008, 89). The urban, poor, informal settlements are most vulnerable due to the high densities of population, low standards of housing, and lack of greener areas (Harlan et al. 2006, 67). The thermal discomfort in urban areas also causes increased use of air-conditioning appliances and consequently leading to increased energy use and this in turn leads to higher green house gas emissions leading to global warming (Kreimer, Munasinghe, & Parker 1995, 154). Rapid expansion of cities in different nations throughout the world has been by accompanied by fast growth of informal settlements commonly known as slums. Slums grow due out the fact that the formal housing market is not able to cater the increasing number of urban migrants many of whom are exceptionally poor (Huchzermeyer 2004, 196). Energy uses are anticipated to grow among populations living in informal settlements in cities as they move out of rural areas, which are stricken by poverty and move to cities to escape poverty due to high economic growth rates in urban areas of most developing countries. Growth of informal settlements has adverse effects on environmental issues and sustainability including increased uses of energy. Environmental sustainability is adversely affected in such settlements in terms of energy used by home appliances. For long time, it has been evident that most of the growth rates in most of the world’s population for the coming years will take place in major cities and towns of the developing countries. According to the UN DESA (United Nations Department of Economics and Social Affairs), only 30% per cent of the world’s total population was living in urban areas in 1950. In the contemporary world, 50 percent of the people’s population lives in the cities and urban areas. This trend of urbanization is worldwide but with dissimilar rates from one country and region to another. Today, the already developed countries had large percentages living in urban locations during the 1950s. Nonetheless, it is estimated that the group of developing and less developed countries will reach this level of urbanization at around 2019. In addition, it is anticipated that at around 2050, 70% of the total population will be living in the urban regions (UN DESA 2011, 87). In the past, urban growth has been following the trend of economic growth for a nation. Cities and other urban regions have increasingly been recognized as the main engines and drivers of job creation, economic growth and innovation. Urbanization has been recognized as a way of reducing poverty through creation of new opportunities, raising incomes among people, as well as increasing the number and ways of livelihood options (UN Habitat 2010, 33). On the contrary, urbanization can at times be accompanied by poor economic growth and ineffective ways and policies of distributing income leading to negative consequences of urbanization and increasing the populations of disadvantaged city dwellers living in such informal settlements rather than reducing poverty. In most cases, these new migrants tend to increase squatter and slum settlements and the growth and development shanty towns; deteriorate the problems of already overcrowded regions, insufficient housing, water, air and environmental pollution, and poor access to fresh water, hygiene, sanitation and other basic social amenities (Pardalos, & Rassia 2012, 198). The energy consumption of most developing countries has in the past been lower and for this reason considered less important aspect in environmental sustainability than the developed countries. However, at present, the developing countries like most nations in Africa have rapidly grown in a way that their energy consumption has considerably increased. Most importantly, energy consumption rate among people living in informal settlements has rapidly increased and such populations are in the forefront, as they tend to come out of poverty after moving from rural to urban areas thus their energy consumption rate increases dramatically. Developed countries have already taken considerable measures to enhance energy efficiency but the developing countries are still lagging behind in this context especially the disadvantaged and poor city dwellers in informal regions that still use ineffective energy products once they afford them. Due to the rationale, much of the activities of development to obtain the ‘low hanging fruit’ are mostly seen in the developing countries and particularly offering sustainable energy provision services especially to the disadvantaged people in the urban areas (McNeil et al. 2008, 76). The process of Urbanization is the major motivating force that is behind energy demand in the urban buildings and hence identical to development. With the increasing economic growth in the developing nations, there has been an increase in the use of assets using large amounts of energy such as televisions, washing machines, heaters, refrigerators, air conditioning, heaters among other appliances. There are growing populations in these regions whose social status have changed gradually due to employment and increased incomes. They are thus able to afford such appliances so they purchase in relatively large quantities increasing the rate of energy since most of them use electrical energy. The positive trend of increased economic growth and wealth leads to higher energy and other resource consumption rates unless there are policies to direct the consumption into climate friendly development (Pardalos, & Rassia 2012, 163). Providing only the basic individual needs level of energy appliances and services will merely have a limited consequence on the enhancement on the effects of greenhouse gas emissions. Reports given by International Energy Agency that says, that providing only the basic universal energy services would merely add up to 1.3 percent of total global emissions by the year 2030. However, a change towards the use of productive energy services could raise emissions significantly (AGECC, 2010, 55). Productive energy uses refers to the level of energy required to improve people’s livelihoods and at the same time drive economic growth and development on a sustainable basis in the urban regions of developing countries. This is why a change towards productive energy uses is critical and increases the capability of end users to pay for energy bills for they appliances and services they use and this is vital for the sustainability of financial viability of such services. This shift emphasizes on the importance of enabling renewable energy sources and quick deployment of devices which are energy efficient and reduce the amount of energy used (Huchzermeyer 2004, 214). The academic community and other policy makers have recognized the sensitive need of providing quality energy services as well as the associated problems and challenges among the disadvantaged and poor people in urban areas. However, the strategies, procedures and policies to deal with these challenges are yet to be adequately understood in moist parts of the world. It is necessary for upcoming nations to embrace the information which can enable them understand the development of such strategies and policies which are highly valuable to developing countries. This knowledge of information may also provide important insights in designing maps for future informal settlements, policy development as well being useful to policy makers and other organizations (Pardalos, & Rassia 2012, 243). This kind of information entails projecting the use of energy of urban and poor households and subsequent emission of carbon dioxide gas, sustainable ways and options, which maximize these trends, as well as achievement of cost and energy savings. It is evident that informal settlements will continue to exist in major cities of most nations as projected by the UN and other Non Governmental bodies. With respect to this, the administration of such cities should strive at improving the livelihoods in such settlements to ensure that the environmental effects among several hosing problems are reduced. There are several recommendations made which include (UN Habitat 2010, 33) Recognition of informal property rights Giving title deeds to owners of such lands, which is termed as the issuance of legitimate rights, is a good way of giving informal settlements property rights. This brings tenure security in such areas Use of inclusive approaches to improve land An immense increase in population densities in informal settlements has been observed and thus it is necessary for the cities to improve the quality of housing as well as provide basic services through land readjustment. For instance, land pooling where landowners pool their land together into a single partnership, which is administered by an agency of the government, which then after redevelopment security rights are issued. Governments may need to resettle residents of informal settlements especially if they are vulnerable to environmental hazards like flooding. However, sufficient notice ought to given to residents at the time of resettlement, involve them in planning as well as providing fair compensation for the informal property rights (Pardalos & Rassia 2012, 323). Reference List AGECC. 2010. The Secretary General’s Advisory Group on Energy and Climate Change (AGECC) Energy for a Sustainable Future, Summary Report and Recommendations Glossary of Environment Statistics, Studies in Methods, Series F, No. 67, United Nations, New York, 1997. HUCHZERMEYER, M. 2004. Unlawful Occupation: Informal Settlements and Urban Policy in South Africa and Brazil. Africa World Press. KREIMER, A., MUNASINGHE, M., & PARKER, R. 1995. Informal Settlements, Environmental Degradation, and Disaster Vulnerability: The Turkey Case Study, Volume 97. World bank publications. MAKHANYA, E. M., BRYANT, C. R., & HERRMANN, T. M. (2008). The sustainability of rural systems in developing countries. Montréal, Laboratoire de développement durable et dynamique territoriale, Département de géographie, Université de Montréal. MCNEIL, M.A., LETSCHERT, V.E., Stephane de la Rue du Can,2008. Global Potential of Energy Efficiency Standards and Labeling Programs, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, CLASP MELÉNDEZ-ORTIZ, R., & ROFFE, P. (2009). Intellectual property and sustainable development: development agendas in a changing world. Cheltenham, UK, Edward Elgar PACHAURI, S., ÜRGE-VORSATZ, D., and LA BELLE, M., 2012. Synergies between Energy Efficiency and Energy Access Policies and Strategies, Global Policy Volume 3. Issue 2. PARDALOS, P. & RASSIA, S. 2012. Sustainable Environmental Design in Architecture: Impacts on Health. Springer Science and Business Media. UN HABITAT. 2010. State of the World’s Cities 2010/2011- Cities for All: Bridging the Urban Divide; available at http://www.unhabitat.org UNESCAP. 2008. “The Green Growth approach for climate action” background paper for The 3rd Policy Consultation Forum of the Seoul Initiative Network on Green Growth, 18-20 September 2008 Cebu, Philippines. UNITED NATIONS.2011, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (UN DESA): World Urbanization Prospects, the 2011 Revision. Read More