Terrorism and Security Issues Facing the Water Infrastructure Sector - Case Study Example

Abstract The terrorist attacks of 9/11 have highlighted the dangers posed by biological warfare. Water infrastructure systems are particularly vulnerable to threat because there is no well developed response system that has been implemented nationwide. Early warning systems may therefore be beneficial in ensuring that potentially dangerous contamination is identified and redressed early. Contamination of drinking water by biological agents The anthrax scare subsequent to the terrorist incident of 9/11 has highlighted the dangers of biological warfare. However, there are also dangers that are inherent in contamination of drinking water systems by unfriendly terrorist elements, which in turn could lead to a mass health crisis (Foran and Brosnan, 2000). Collignon(2007) points out that the protection of drinking water is achieved not only by chlorination, flocculation and other protective measures but also by the protection of water catchment areas through minimizing the entry of any kind of waste matter. Therefore if these catchment areas are infiltrated, there could be a collective risk posed through contamination of drinking water supplies. Crockett (2007) recently estimated that there is an endemic risk posed from drinking water, with the potential for 2 to 20 ML/d of waste water discharge containing pathogens to reach water supply intakes at significant concentrations that may exceed regulatory limits. Hence, normal procedures that are used for treatment of waste water may also be inadequate in some instances to provide an adequate level of protection against contamination of the water to an unacceptable level that could be dangerous to humans – to health and to lives. This highlights the importance of installing early warning systems for infiltration by biological agents, so that water supplies and distribution systems may be protected. The danger of the terrorist threat is especially potent, because vast areas of unprotected water system could form an easy target for the terrorists and it would result in large scale damages caused to numerous people who drink the water. It is a particularly dangerous form of terrorist biological warfare, which cannot be easily combated, except through adopting preventive measures. Hence, the incorporation of early warning systems into water systems could be of inestimable benefit, because they will provide a warning that contamination exists, sufficiently in time to enable the local authorities or responsible people in charge to alert citizens, so that the water suspected of being contaminated can be diverted and closed off, before it causes harm. The security and terrorist risks facing water supply systems: In a CRS Report (2005) prepared for Congress, it has been pointed out that any kind of damage or threat to the nation’s water infrastructure by terrorist elements could cause a disruption in the delivery of vital human services and cause a mass threat to health, with potential loss of life. Since the water infrastructure systems extend over large areas, with ownership and responsibility for maintenance being distributed over both federal and private agencies, and no clearly established criteria of best practices being identified, there is a high level of vulnerability to attack that is created. A uniformly high standard of response and alertness also cannot be guaranteed, thereby posing higher levels of risk. There is a need for increased physical security at the water infrastructure units, enhanced communication and coordination between various water infrastructure units and more research on preventive measures that may be adopted. Water distribution systems offer one of the best potential targets for terrorists because they are relatively unprotected, cover large isolated areas and are easily accessible. Foran and Brosnan (2007) have highlighted studies which show that terrorist use of biological warfare could pose a significant threat to drinking water. Some of these pathogens, such as anthrax, clostridium perfringens, plague and biotoxins such as botulinum, aflatoxin and ricin, which are being used for biological warfare are not disinfected by chlorine and they are able to remain stable for long periods in water, which increases the potential danger from these sources. Moreover, some of these biological forms that exist as spores may also be small enough to slip through reverse osmosis water purification systems, thereby making them difficult to destroy effectively through any of the conventional water purification methods. Protection of the nation’s drinking water and waste water treatment systems has become a top priority after the terrorist incidents of 9/11. The EPA released its research and technical Support Plan, which was an action plan geared towards developing research and formulating a comprehensive plan for the protection of the nation’s water resources and infrastructure. Reports have already been generated that assess the most likely kinds of threats posed, the updates to software tools and the training that may be required to provide protection, the development of guidelines for dealing with the threat of contamination and in carrying out periodic assessments to evaluate contamination and procedures to handle contaminated water supplies, especially when the contaminating factor may be an unknown entity. Moreover, the EPA is also spearheading research into early warning detection systems that can catch the contamination early enough to enable authorities to take quick, preventive action. General methods to protect water supplies: Burrows and Renner(1999) state that biological agents in potable water can cause heavy casualties if ingested. In some instances, persons responsible for maintaining water purification equipment may be at most risk of exposure. While some of the biological agents are inactivated by chlorine disinfection, this may not necessarily be effective in the case of all biological agents. The shigella species and vibrio cholerae are two of the most obvious threats and individual susceptibility to contaminated water may vary; for example children are more susceptible to shigella, while other individuals may be susceptible to the more virulent strains of pathogenic organisms.Exposure of water to direct sunlight kills many of the biological agents and disinfection using Chlorine or other disinfection agents may be useful in decontamination, because some of the biological agents are deactivated when these are used (Burrows and Renner, 1999). According to Hoyle, a deliberate disabling of the chlorination system in a treatment plant would also guarantee that the water supply is contaminated, as was the case in Walkerton, Ontario when the run off from a cattle field contaminated the water supply with Escherichia Coli and killed over 2000 people.(www.espionageinfo.com) However, Burrows and Renner (1999) have also pointed out that some studies have shown that chlorine may be ineffective against tularemia and in the case of Cr parvum, chlorination of water may be ineffective if the filtration performance of reverse osmosis purification units deteriorates. Ordinary water purification units may not be able to reduce the concentration of anatoxin A and microcystin, which can however be achieved through reverse osmosis. Hoyle states that chlorination has also been found to be ineffective against some protozoa such as Giardia and Cytosporidium that have a spore like stage during their life cycles which is able to survive exposure to chlorine.(www.espionageinfo.com) Crockett (2007) recommends the use of waste water dischargers to achieve more than 6 log combined removal and inactivation of pathogens, through the use of alternative treatment processes such as filtration or UV light disinfection. This could provide enhanced protection and purification of water. Collignon (2007) recommends that recycled water is not used for drinking purposes at all; rather it can be diverted into other uses because the risks poses by contamination by biological agents are too great. Reverse Osmosis: In the army, the method used for purification of water is through the use of the Reverse Osmosis Water Purification Unit , where preliminary stages of the process include coagulation or flocculation and multimedia filtration.(Burrows and Rennet, 1999) The actual removal of biological agents through the reverse osmosis has been measured in the case of only a few organisms, but the general assumption has been that an intact Reverse Osmosis membrane is likely to exclude virtually all biological agents due to size. However Burrows and Rennet (1999) point out that during field tests of the Reverse Osmosis units, some studies have shown the passage of bacillus subtilus spores into drinking water. The spore form of anthrax can be removed only if the pore size is less than 1 µm and Clostridium perfringens is insensitive to deactivation by chlorine, requiring treatment with a chlorine residual of 1.2 mg/L for 15 minutes at 200C and a pH value of 7. These authors have also pointed that the greatest risks posed by contaminated water are likely to affect those who clean and service the water purification systems. Collignon (2007) contests the efficacy of reverse osmosis systems which recycle sewage water into drinking water and states that about 1 to 2% of salts and 10 to 50% of nitrates may not be effectively removed by the process, with only limited research available on the performance of reverse osmosis systems in removing viruses and pathogens from water. This is significant, especially because most water purification systems used by the military are based upon reverse osmosis, which may still allow contamination of water supplies to occur, with potential harmful effects especially to those personnel who clean water purification equipment. The advantages of early warning systems: Susceptibility to disease from contaminated water may vary in different humans. In some tropical countries, individuals may develop immunity to certain pathogens such as vibrio cholerae in limited proportions. In general, very low concentrations of some biological agents may not endanger individuals and be causative factors in disease. However, a rise in concentration of these pathogens in water for any reason could pose dangers to the general population and therefore it may be desirable to have an early warning system installed, in order to detect when the level of pathogens in the water is in danger of escalating to an unacceptable level. According to Foran and Brosnan (2007), the goal of a water monitoring system that is able to provide an early warning is to assess the probability and impact of contamination events that would include chemical and radiation effects as well as microbial and pathogenic effects in the source water systems. When such an early warning system exists, there is sufficient time that is provided for local authorities to take immediate action to warn people and prevent exposure to the contaminated water, thereby saving lives and saving people from disease infestation. The water distribution system suspected of contamination may be shut down, additional data gathering and surveillance measures may be implemented and additional treatment measures such as boiling, etc may be initiated to further purify the water and remove the biological agents. The authors also state that if an early monitoring system is to be truly effective, it must not create too many false positive results and the costs of maintaining such a system should not exceed the potential benefits that are to be derived from it. Moreover, early warning systems must be sensitive, reliable, reproducible as well as verifiable, while also being supported by quality control procedures.(Foran and Brosnan, 2007). There must also be good interpretation of results from the early warning systems, with clearly established baselines when issue of public warning will become necessary. According to Grayman et al (2001), a American water Works Association Research Foundation study has identified the following components that an effective Early warning system must have: (a) it must detect the likely presence of the contaminant in water (b) it must contain some means to confirm the presence of a contaminant, identify the nature of the contaminant and the intensity of its concentration in the water system, with the ability to predict when said contamination is likely to affect the end users (c) it must contain communication linkages to transfer information related to the communication (d) it must also contain inbuilt mechanisms to deal with the contamination present in the water to mitigate harmful effects on end users and (e) it must comprise an institutional framework with a centralized unit that coordinates all the events that are associated with managing the contamination event. Views of Government experts: The United States Government Accountability Office discovered that source water supplies and distribution components of a water system were most vulnerable to potential sources of contamination, together with computer systems managing critical utility functions and treatment chemicals stored on site (GAO, 2004). Experts were of the view that federal funding for water protection should be directed to those utilities that serve high density areas, as well as to those utilities that serve military establishments, key academic institutions and national icons. They support increased funding for the development of technology geared towards the detection and protection from attack, increased training for emergency personnel to carry put response plans and strengthening key relationships, such as those between water utilities and public health agencies. Most experts also expressed the view that the decision on allocation of funds was to be made based upon an assessment of the level of vulnerability of drinking water utilities in a particular region.(GAO, 2004) Early warning systems currently available: In Switzerland, a new ground water monitoring system has been introduced. Since the most important source of drinking water is the groundwater which accounts for more than 80% of usage, there is great concern about the quality of the water. The ground water supply is vulnerable to polluting activities by humans in the form of residues from fertilizers, pesticides, industrial chemicals and similar pollutants.(www.bafu.admin.ch). Nitrate is one source of contamination and so is PPP, which are both by products of farming activity. Other contaminants are hydrocarbons and MTBE, an organic compound. The NAQUA network in Switzerland carried out a process of periodic monitoring of ground water levels by monitoring the levels of the various chemicals in the water frequently, in order to ensure that they are maintained below dangerous levels. As a result of this continuous monitoring, the ground water in Switzerland is still safe to drink despite the presence of some of the pollutants mentioned above, which are not present in high enough levels to pose a danger to humans. However, the system of constant monitoring of the groundwater is of benefit, because it will be able to detect unacceptable levels of contamination early enough to provide warning to the public.(www.bafu.admin.ch) Almadidy et al (2003) have developed a fibro-optic biosensor that is able to ascertain the presence of Escherichia coli by detecting its genomic target sequences. They point out that methods generally used in laboratories for detecting pathogens may be time consuming and therefore inappropriate in instances where a rapid turnover of results is desired. They have also pointed out in their study that researchers in the United States have estimated that 40% of private water supplies and 70% of spring fed water supplies are likely to contain coliform bacteria, which may not be pathogenic but provide a significant indication that there may be bacterial pathogenic contamination of the water. The creation of a fibro-optic bio-sensor for a portion of the LacZ gene therefore helped to function as a diagnostic device to provide a service to enable hybridization of E.Coli markets that enable quick detection. Hoyle offers the view that electronic sensors are a promising technology that function like electronic noses to detect the presence of chemicals and biological bodies, however it would have to be adapted in order to be found suitable for use with water. He also points out that one method which successfully detects the presence of Escherichia coli in fresh water is through the binding of fluorescent antibodies to the surface of the bacteria, because the resulting fluorescence that is produced through a binding of the antibodies makes the presence of E.Coli evident. Moreover, prototypes of such devices are portable and therefore they can be carried along for use in hydrants to test the water that flows through the distribution system. (www.espionageinfo.com) Hoyle also points to another promising technology wherein genetic material such as DNA and RNA are recovered from the water sample and DNA sequences that are unique to the target bacteria are detected by using mirror images of the DNA that will selectively bind to the target sequence. This technique using DNA microchips is also useful to detect bacteria that are present in soil and ocean water samples. (www.espionageinfo.com). He also states that water sources should be protected, fire hydrants should be locked and the public should be notified immediately in the event of water contamination, with the response of all authorities being choreographed and planned early on in order to be effective as an emergency response system. Bio-Sentry is a water monitoring system that can specifically identify the presence as well as the behavior of microorganisms during the water treatment and distribution processes.(JMAR 2007). Through the user of laser based, multi-angle light scattering technology, it continuously provides an on-line, real time monitoring system for harmful microorganisms. The Bio-Systems water monitoring system has been installed in water utility operations, beverage quality assurance, cruise ship water monitoring and is currently being testing by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for use in homeland security. The Environmental Protection Agency has also signed research agreements with three companies – YSI, Inc and Pure Environmental, Inc and the Hach Company, to develop technology that will function as an early warning system to detect and identify unknown contaminants that may be present in water supplies and distribution systems in the United States (Ackerman, 2004). This is to be implemented through water sensor technologies that can immediately the presence of a contaminant in water and generate readings that will in turn be interpreted by the software to produce local officials with a real time alert of the risk of water contamination. This will also enable prompt action by officials to isolate the contaminating element and prevent distribution of the water into the main water supply systems. The Hach Company announced the availability of its Guardian Blue Early Earning System, which has received a certification from the Department of Homeland Security after three years of Government testing of the product using actual biological warfare agents (www.hach.com). This system uses a patented Event Monitor Technology and it is able to detect a wide range of contaminants from cyanide and pesticides to ricin and VX. The system not only detects the presence of contaminants and provides an alert, it also classifies and identifies what kind of a contaminant it is because it contains fingerprints of the various contaminants. This can be used by local agencies for installation in water distribution systems. The system consists of the following parts – the Event Monitor TMP with Agent library, the Water panel, the TOCOTMP Total organic Carbon Analyzer and an optional Auto Sampler. The Water Panel and the TOC Analyzer are the advanced water quality sensors and both these components, together with the Guardian Blue Event Monitor were included in an Environmental Technology Verification study which was sponsored by the USEPA for continuous water testing(www.hach.com). The function of the Guardian Blue Event Monitor is to integrate the multiple sensor outputs emanating from the water panel and the TOC Analyzer. One in every 60 seconds, the system applies a patented algorithm to the sensor measurements, thereby calculating the baseline of the site’s water quality. When the trigger signal exceeds a threshold that has been set by the user, the system sends out an alarm which indicates that there has been a deviation in the water quality. There is also a Plant Library which learns about and reports the reoccurrence of operational events, thereby also allowing for identification of trends and patterns which could further aid in the process of detection and analysis. Conclusion: The threat of water contamination poses a serious risk that the nation is not currently prepared for to an adequate degree. Protecting water resources is a difficult task because of the lack of coordination and communication among the various agencies and private bodies that maintain water supplies. Waste water treatment facilities can also be a potential source of infiltration of contamination into water supplies. The widespread nature of water infrastructure systems makes them vulnerable to threat and contamination of water systems could be a potent weapon in the hands of terrorists. It is a safe and easy way for them to cause havoc and deaths of an unprecedented nature, in the nature of an pandemic, disrupting the country’s health and emergency response systems. This is why it is vital that the nation be prepared to face such a crisis and appropriate emergency measures be put into place, together with mobilization of necessary funds required to accomplish the protection of lives of citizens. While there are several measures that are currently being implemented for safe treatment of water and protection of water establishments, it is necessary that additional security measures be implemented, and a nation wide standardized system of responses be developed so that an emergency can be handled well. While measures that are currently in place may be adequate in a peace time situation, the country is faced with the threat of terrorism, where the destructive effects were evident in the 9/11 attack. Therefore, extraordinary measures need to be adopted, since such water contamination would qualify as a crisis or disaster of epic proportions, which must be adequately prepared for with a well coordinated system of defense responses. In the same manner as people are prepared for an earthquake by practicing drills and identifying shelters where they can go, citizens must also be provided with guidance on how to react in the case of a water emergency, while local authorities must have a clear set of instructions and guidelines that they can follow to ensure that all necessary measures are taken to protect as many people as possible. It must be pointed that the system that is being utilized in Switzerland as mentioned above is a sampling system that is carried out periodically rather than a real time continuous system that is sensitive to contamination levels at all times. While periodic monitoring methods through sampling may be adequate to detect contamination that may result from human activity, terrorist activity poses a different scenario altogether. Such biological contamination may result in a sudden jump in contaminant levels which could pass unnoticed unless it is continuously monitored. Moreover, since most water bodies are in isolated areas and largely unprotected, they can be accessed by terrorists who can release life threatening amounts of contaminants into drinking water with disastrous effects. The benefit of early warning systems could be considerable, since it will provide an early estimate of the potential for danger, so that preventive measures can be implemented before any large scale destructive effects are caused. Preventive measures are likely to be much more effective in averting a water crisis rather than being subject to the enormous mobilization of resources that will be required to treat numerous sick individuals apart from the lives lost. Effective early warning systems are being developed, which appear to demonstrate good potential, because they provide real time, continuous monitoring systems. Hach’s system in particular appears to offer tremendous benefit because it is also able to identify the contaminant that is involves so that prompt action can be taken for purification of water through appropriate measures as may be necessary to destroy that particular microorganism that has infiltrated the water. An early warning system that merely provides an alert mat also be efficacious in diverting people from drinking the contaminated water, however when the source of contaminant is also identified by the early warning system, it will also enable corrective measures to be implemented quickly and effectively, so that safe drinking water supply can be restored. However, the Bio Sentry system also appears to offer good benefits because it is an online continuous monitoring system, therefore it enables prompt detection of contamination. Since terrorists can cause large scale havoc in a very short time, a real time, monitoring system is to be preferred over ones used earlier when the terrorist threat did not exist. References: * Ackerman, Susan, 2004. “EPA signs research agreements to develop early warning detection devices for U.S. water systems.” [online] retrieved August 4, 2007 from: http://yosemite.epa.gov/opa/admpress.nsf/ f2812c1a8484b3b5852572a000650c02/754a0739ba5bc9c985256e99005a9f60! OpenDocument * Almadidy, Amer, Watterson, James, Piunno, Paul A.E., Foulds, Inge V et al, 2003. “A fibro-optic sensor for detection of microbial contamination” Journal of Chemistry, 81(5): 339 * Burrows, Dickinson W and Renner, Sara E, 1999. “Biological warfare agents as threats to potable water.” Environmental Health Perspectives, 107(12) [online] Retrieved August 3, 2007 from: http://www.ehponline.org/members/1999/107p975-984burrows/burrows-full.html * Collignon, Peter, 2007. “Recycling water from sewage into drinking water: a high level “health risk” we do not need to take in Canberra.” [online] Retrieved August 3, 2007 from: http://www.expertpanelonhealth.canberra.net.au/downloads/SubmissionPeterColli gnon.pdf * CRS Report, 2005. “Terrorism and Security Issues facing the water Infrastructure Sector” [online] retrieved August 3, 2007 from: http://fas.org/irp/crs/RL32189.pdf * Crockett, C.S., 2007. “The role of wastewater treatment in protecting water supplies against emerging pathogens” Water Environmental research, 79(3): 221- 32 * Foran, Jeffrey A and Brosnan, Thomas M, 2000. “Early warning systems for hazardous biological agents in potable water.” Environmental health perspectives, 108(10). * GAO Report, 2004. “Drinking water: experts views on how federal funding can best be spent to improve security.” [online] Retrieved August 3, 2007 from: http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d041098t.pdf * Grayman, W.M., Deninger, R.A. and Males. R.M., 2001. “Design of early warning and predictive source water monitoring systems.” Denver: AWWA Research Foundation * “Hach launches the Guardian Blue Early Warning System” [online] Retrieved August 4, 2007 from: http://www.hach.com/hc/static.template/templateName=HcWhatsNew.HcProduct NewsRelease2007-March-a.htm * Hoyle, Brian, No Date. “Water supply – counter terrorism” [online] available at: http://www.espionageinfo.com/Vo-Z/Water-Supply-Counter-Terrorism.html * JMAR’s Bio-Sentry to be installed in Largest water Company in the Netherlands.” Retrieved August 3, 2007 from: http://www.jmar.com/2004/pdf/2007/JMAR_BioSentry_Interline_Final_03.19.20 07.pdf * NAQUA Expert Report – Groundwater quality in Switzerland 2002/2003.” [online] Retrieved August 4, 2007 from: http://www.bafu.admin.ch/php/modules/shop/files/pdf/phpeAE2gN.pdf Read More